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OUTLINES 

OF 

PSYCHOLOGY 
Williams 




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OUTLINES 
OF PSYCHOLOGY 



DESIGNED FOR USE IN 

TEACHERS' CLASSES, NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
AND INSTITUTES, AND AS A GUIDE 
FOR ALL STUDENTS OF AP- 
PLIED PSYCHOLOGY. 

/ 

Henry Gv Williams, A. M. 

Superintendent Schools, Lynchburg, Ohio, and author of a Series of 
Outlines for Teachers and Advanced Students. 



THIRD EDITION. /^^Iq^'^^IGHt ^ 

^AbG 3 1895 



SYRACUSE. N. Y. XCo^^ OUdO 

C W. BARDEEN, Publisher. 

1895. 



^■^l-^ 



Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1894, and 1895, by 

Henry G. Williams, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington, D. C. 



Electrotyped by 

C. J. Krehbiel & Co. 

248 Walnut Street, 

Cincinnati, O. 



PREFACE. 



THIS little book does not pretend to be a treatise 
on Psychology, but an outline of principles log- 
ically arranged so that the student of Psychology an'd 
of the theory of teaching may use it as a guide-book 
in directing his investigations upon this subject. Defi- 
nitions and principles are not here extensively eluci- 
dated, but the facts of the science are plainly stated in 
their relation to each other, with ample suggestions to 
the student who desires to make further investigations. 
It has been the aim of the author to incorporate the 
cardinal principles that underlie all empirical psychol- 
ogy, and to show the inseparable relationship existing 
between these principles and the successful practice of 
the teacher. As '' science is knowledge properly clas- 
sified," it has been the aim of the author to show the 
coordination and subordination of every topic, sug- 
gesting also the order in which each should be studied. 
That there is a philosophy of education is now gener- 
ally admitted, though not universally. The application 
of universal principles to teaching is based upon such 
a philosophy. To aid the young teacher to discover 
and realize that Psychology is not an isolated science, 
the author has appended other outlines and suggestive 
articles, showing the application of psychological prin- 

3 



4 PREFACE. 

ciples. The demand for this little book on the part of 
teachers and students in all parts of the country has 
been such since issued, onl}'- a few months ago, that 
the author feels that it has been gladly welcomed by 
the teaching profession. It has been necessary to 
make new plates, and the author has taken the oppor- 
tunity thus afforded to make several additions to the 
work. That it may continue to meet the approval of an 
ever-advancing profession is the hope of the author. 

Henry G. Wii^liams. 
Lynchburg, O., March, 1895. 



A SYNOPSIS OF THE SUBJECT. 

Every student shQuld acquaint thonself ^^ with some 
method by which thon can positively correlate the 
facts of thons knowledge. The author believes a sys- 
tematic and logical classification of the truths of a 
science necessary to make knowledge scientific. With 
that end in view he has attempted to embody, in a 
logical outline, the fundamental facts of this impor- 
tant science. 

If the student of these pages be not entirely familiar 
with this system of outlining, thon will do well to 
study carefully the following brief synopsis of the 
more extended outline that follows. It will be noticed 
that the larger figures represent coordination when 
placed one above the other in a vertical column, and 
subordination when placed one column to the right. 
The exponents placed to the right and at the top of 
the numerals indicate the order and extent of the sub- 
divisions made. A little careful study will enable the 
student to comprehend readily the entire scheme, and 
to observe the manifest superiority of the exponential 
numeral system above all others. 

"As the English language lacks a pronoun for the third 
person, singular number, common gender, the author hopes 
he will be pardoned for using the above new word. He also 
hopes the word will soon become euphonious to many a 
student of English. Declined : Nominative, tlwn ; possessive, 
thons; objective, tlwn ; compound, nominative and objective, 
thons elf. 

5 



THE SYNOPSIS. 

Psychology. 

1 2 Definition. — Psychology is the science of the phe- 
nomena of the soul. 
2 2 Methods of study. 

i^ The introspective, or subjective, method. — 
The study of self by means of consciousness. 
2^ The inferential, or objective, method. — The 
study of the mind by observation of the 
words and acts of others, and by biography, 
history, literature, etc. 
3^ The physiological. — The study of the rela- 
tions between physical conditions and mental 
phenomena. 
4^ The textbook method. — If teachers expect to 
learn the science, they must study the gener- 
alizations resulting from observ^ation and in- 
ference. 
3 2 The powers of the soul. 

i^ Its general powers — 3 in number. 
I* Consciousness. — See outline. 
2* Attention. — See outline. 
3* Conception. — See outline. 
2^ Its individual powers — 3 in number. 
I* Intellect. 

I ^ Def. — The power of the soul to know. 
2' Intellectual powers. 



THE SYNOPSIS. 7 

i'' Presentative. — The powers or channels 
through which the soul gains knowledge. 
See outline. 
i^ Self-Consciousness. 
2^ Sense-Perception. 
3' Intuition. 
2^ Representative. — The powers to represent 
and reknow objects, their qualities and rela- 
tions, by concepts, ideas, or images. 
i^ Phantas}', or fancy. — See outline. 
2^ Imagination. — See outline. 
3^ Memory. — See outline. 
3^ Thought, or Cognitive Powders. — Powders by 
which we form and rationally apply general 
conceptions. 

i"^ Conceptive generalization. See outline. 
2^ Judgment. — See outline. 
3^ Reason. — See outline. 
2* Sensibility. 

i^ The corporeal feelings. 

i^ Sensations. — General and special. 
2^ Appetites. — Natural and acquired. 
2^ The psychical feelings. 

i^ Affections. — Beneficent, defensive, and malefi- 
cent. 
2^ Emotions. — Instinctive and rational. 
3*^ Desires. — For property, liberty, knowledge, 
etc. 
3^ Will. 

i^ Def — The .soul's power to execute. 
2^ Classification of wnll powers. 
3'^ Moral training. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

ii Definition. — Psychology is the science of the phe- 
nomena of the soul. Gordy says it is the science 
of mental facts. Steele says, " Psychology is the 
science of the human soul," and so say a large ma- 
jority of authorities, but a close study of the facts 
will convince one that the science is based upon 
a study of the phenomena, or activities, of the soul. 
2^ Ktj^mology. — From the Greek psyche, meaning 

soul, and logos, meaning discourse. 
3^ Province. — The mind and its activities. 
4^ Reasons why it should be studied, 
i^ By all who desire a good education, 
i^ It develops the intellect. 

2^ It teaches the importance of a study of hu- 
man nature in order to win success in an}'- 
vocation or profession. 
3^ It enables one to know how best to develop 

his own mind. 
4^ It is of great value to all who would influence 
their fellowmen to moral excellence and the 
best use of their faculties. 
2 2 By teachers and prospective teachers. 

i^ It aids the teacher in striving for that which 
is best within himself. 
8 ' 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 9 

2^ It enables hiui to teach scientifically. 

3^ With the mind the teacher deals, concerning 

mind he should know. 
4* " On earth there is nothing g^eat but man, and 

in man there is nothing great but mind." 
5* It enables the teacher to direct with a pur- 
pose and to a definite end the early develop- 
ment of the child mind. 
3^ By all professional persons. 

i^ " The proper study of mankind is man." 
2^ A knowledge of human nature is indispens- 
able to the lawyer, the doctor, or the minister. 
51 The Soul. 

I- Def — The soul is that part of man's being which 

feels, knows, and wills. 
2^ Synonyms. — Mind, ego, self, spirit, etc. The term 
7ni7zd is used as almost identical with the term 
soul, 3'et there should be a difference in their 
application. (See 4^ below.) Ego means the self, 
as distinguished from all material creation — the 
individual soul : I, myself. The ego is the 
subjective as distinguished from the objective. 
Other synonyms are : conscious subject, human 
consciousness, and spirit. 
3^ Distinction between soul and spirit. — Hewett 
makes this distinction : The word soid includes 
in its meaning such of the lower psychical pow- 
ers as the nobler brutes possess in some degree 
in common with man. The spiritual part of 
man's psychical nature includes personality, 
morality, and responsibility, while the soul attri- 
butes possessed by the higher orders of the 



30 OUTLINKS OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

lower animals do not include reason, conscience, 
and a free will, hence no personality, moralit}^ 
and responsibilit}^ 
42 Distinction between mind and soul. — I look upon 
the mind as being finite, while the soul is in- 
finite, because immortal, hence infinite in extent 
and infinite in content. The soul is capable of 
indefinite improvement in progression, while the 
growth of the mind is rendered finite by death. 
Soul includes all that mind does, while it also 
includes the spiritual nature, the function of im- 
mortal being. 
5^ The powers or faculties exercised by the soul. — 
Sensibility, intellect, and will. 
I ^ This classification was first made by Sir Wil- 
liam Hamilton, about 1840. 
2^ Divisions. 

I* Sensibility. — The power of the soul to feel ; 
includes physical as well as psychical feel- 
ings, because the former can be recognized 
only by the conscious subject, the soul. 
2* Intellect. — The power of the soul to know. 
3* Will. — The power of the soul to do or 
execute. 
^1 Psychology proper. 
1 2 Classification. 

i^ Empirical psychology. — That which restricts 
itself to observation and experience, and does 
not speculate upon the nature of the princi- 
ples involved. All psychology proper is em- 
pirical, and to this branch of the subject 
teachers should devote particular attention. 



OUTLINES uF PSYCHOLOGY. II 

12^ Rational psychology. — That which deals with 
the nature of the soul and deduces philoso- 
phies from the underlying principles discov- 
ered in the study of phenomena. Empirical psy- 
chology gives but greater prominence to phe- 
nomena of the soul with the conditions and laws 
of the same, while rational psychology gives 
prominence to the faculties implied by these 
phenomena. The terms cognition, feeling, and 
Abolition apply directly to the first, while the 
terms intellect, sensibilit}', and will are more 
properly used in the classification of the second. 
2 2 Methods of study. 

i-^ The study of self, or by means of conscious- 
ness. 
i^ The method. 

i^ We know that we think, feel, and will. 
2^ We know that w^e see, hear, smell, taste, 

and touch. 
3^ We know that we perceive, imagine, re- 
member, judge, and reason. 
2* Consciousness. — The mind knowing itself and 

its own activities and states. 
3'* Causes. — We can study the causes that ex- 
cite certain feelings in the mind. Psychical 
feelings are here referred to. 
4* Circumstances. — We can observe under what 
circumstances we feel pain and pleasure, joy 
and sorrow, indignation and pity, etc. 
S'* Difficulties encountered by this method. — 
This method of introspection, as it is called, 
is at finst quite difficult, but becomes easier 



12 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

b}^ practice. A mental act of any kind is a. 
fleeting phenomenon, and while we attempt 
to concentrate our thoughts upon any mental 
act it becomes a past act. However, memory 
comes to our assistance and ,calls up our past 
mental phenomena, thus in part obviating the 
difficulty. 

6* Extent of this method. — We can thus study only 
isolated mental facts, hence the method gives us- 
knowledge only of individual facts. To obtain, 
a law of mental activit}^ we must connect these 
individual facts : laws are the results of infer- 
ence. It can thus be seen that we use also, to a 
slight extent, the inferential method in the study 
of our own minds. 
2^ The study by observation. 

I* Application. — While the first method may be- 
called the introspective, or subjective, the study 
of the mind by observation may be called the in- 
ferential, or objective, method. 

2* Advantage. — We have, in the schoolroom and out. 
of it, all the steps in the child's progress in de- 
velopment, together with the real and apparent 
influences and the environments. 

3* Difficulty. — One can not study a single mind, 
long enough or under a sufficient variety of cir- 
cumstances to arrive at definite conclusions.. 
The same child is not under the direct observa- 
tion of a teacher long enough for him to make a. 
series of observations that shall discover for him 
a law of mental growth. The present insecure- 
tenure of teachers only aggravates this difficulty.. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 1 3 

-4* Relation to introspective method. — In the study 
and collection of individual facts j-ou can use 
the introspective method without the inferential, 
but the latter can not be used at all without the 
former. When we make an inference it is be- 
cause we know by introspection that we have 
certain mental activities when certain circum- 
stances exist. 
5* How^ the method is used. 

i^ Through a study of the words and acts of 

others. 
2'^ By observation we may trace the growth of a 

child's mind. 
3^ We may learn the traits, motives, and beliefs 
of men from a study of the auxiliary branches : 
i^ Biology, the science of life. 
2^ Sociology, the science of society. 
3^ Biograph}^ the history or narrative of an 

individual life. 
4^ Anthropology, the science which treats of 
man in his relation to the animal kingdom. 
5^ Physiology, the science which treats of 
the functions of man's individual organ- 
ism. 
6^ History, when studied in the light of cause 

and effect. 
7^ Literature, when studied in the light of the 
history of language and the growth of 
thought. 
3^ The study of psychology from books. 

I* It is a necessary method, but should not be used 
exclusively. 



14 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

2* Dijfi&culty. — The different nomenclatures used. 
by different authors tend to confound the 
learner. (To remove this difficulty the author 
has thought it best to use synonymous terms 
where such terms have come into general use. 
To illustrate : " Introspective," from the Latin, 
meaning to look withiii, is synonymous to 
"subjective"; the student should have this 
relation impressed upon the mind by seeing 
them together.) 
3^ Importance. — Teachers must study psychol- 
ogy from books if they expect to learn the 
science. Only in this way can they profit by 
the experience and wisdom of those who have 
given much time to the study. It is neces- 
sary to study books on this subject in order 
to know the generalizations that have been 
made as the results of centuries of observa- 
tion, and to learn the scientific terms that 
have been thus evolved. 
3 2 Psychology as a science. — Inductive, because its 
laws are founded upon, and formulated from, the 
observation of related mental activities. 
42 Relation of the psychical to the physical. 

i^ Reasons for this relation. — As there can be no 
mental activity without a living organism sup- 
plied with a nervous system, the study of psy- 
chology is necessarily closely connected with 
that of physiology. 
2^ What the relation is. — Neither reflection nor ob- 
servation will reveal the exact relation between 
soul and body. Reflection, consciousness, and 



OUTI.IXES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 1 5 

intuition are alike unable to solve the problem. 
The doctrine of their connection is simply theo- 
retical, and as such does not belong to applied 
psycholog}'. Herbart says: "The whole nerv- 
ous system in the human body serves a single 
soul, and by means of this system the soul is im- 
planted ill this body, more a burden than a help to 
it, for the body lives as a plant for itself, provided 
nourishment and a suitable place be given it, as 
sometimes has to be done for idiots. Stories of 
some who were idiots from birth give rise to the 
thought that they may be merely vegetating bodies 
without souls." It will be of interest to the student 
to sketch an outline of the 

Theories or philosophies arising from the relation 
of the soul and body. — Monism and Dualism. 
I* Monism. 

i^ Def. — The assumption that the soul and body 

are each material, and of one substance. 
2} Etymology. — From the Greek word vionos, 

meaning one. 
3^ Forms of monism. — Materialism, Idealism, 
and Agnosticism, 
i^ Materialism. 

i^ Def. — The doctrine that denies the ex- 
istence of spiritual elements, and re- 
gards the soul as a function of matter 
in motion. 
2'' Example of materialists. — Alexander 
Bain, a Scotch philosopher, born iSiS, 
who called the body a double-faced 
unity, with mind on one side and matter 



16 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

on the other, acting much as an electrical mol- 
ecule. 
2^ Idealism. 

I ^ Def. — The doctrine that admits no other reality 
than ideas, regarding all known objects as the 
products of psychical action, and the soul as 
immaterial. It denies the physical facts that 
correspond to sensations, and teaches that sen- 
sation is not a proof of anything without. 

2^ Idealists. — George Berkeley, Irish metaphysi- 
cian, 1 684-1 753, was probably the founder of 
idealism, though John lyOcke, 1 632-1 704, author 
of"Kssayon the Human Understanding," as- 
serted that experience is the sole ground of 
knowledge. David Hume, 1711-1776, carried 
Locke's theory to startling consequences. John 
Stuart Mill, English political economist, 1806- 
1873, was an idealist. He defined mind as a 
series of feelings, and matter as a permanent 
possibility of sensations. 
3® Agnosticism. 

I'^Def. — The doctrine that the existence of a per- 
sonal deity can neither be asserted nor denied, 
neither proved nor disproved, owing to the 
necessary limits to the human mind. 

2'^ Agnostic. — Herbert Spencer, English philoso- 
pher, born 1820, who refers the phenomena of 
both mind and matter to a substance which is 
both unknown and unknowable. He rejects 
all evidence that is not positive and conclu- 
sive. His great work, '* Education : Moral, Intel- 
lectual, and Physical," should be read by all teach- 
ers, but with a clear, discriminating judgment. 



OUTLINES OF PSVCHOLOCxY. 1 7 

Dualism, (i-* Monism.) 

i^ Dei'. — The doctrine that man is constituted of two 
original and independent elements, matter and 
spirit. 
2^ Etymology. — From the Latin duo, meaning two. 
3^ Forms. — Mysticism and Dualistic Realism. 

i'^M3'sticism. — The doctrine of preestablished 
harmony in all things, and the direct commu- 
nication of the soul with the divine spirit. 
The French philosopher, Nicholas Male- 
branche, 1 638-1 715, and the German philos- 
opher, G. W. Leibnitz, 1646-1716, were dual- 
ists. It seems that dualists themselves, al- 
though believing the doctrine in the main as 
stated above, could never agree as to the ex- 
tent of the soul's vision in comprehending 
the divine spirit. Leibnitz's theory of pre- 
established harmon}^ supposes that the Creator 
has ordered the activities of mind and mat- 
ter to run parallel, but without connection. 
2^ Dualistic Realism. 

i' Def. — The belief in the clear apprehension 
of the soul by self-consciousness, and in a 
knowledge of the body and the world of 
matter through sense-perception. 
2^ Its validity. — This theory, or philosophy, 
adheres to the facts and rejects arbitrary 
h3'potheses. It does not pretend to un- 
ravel all the mysteries of soul, determine 
its locus, or disbelieve all things because it 
can not see all things. It is ready to con- 
fess ignorance when there are no means 
for further knowledge. 



l8 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

3^ Believers in dualistic realism. — Since the 
time of Thomas Ried, a Scotch philoso- 
pher, 1 7 10-1796, this doctrine has been 
the leading one held by the great body of 
advanced thinkers of Europe and Amer- 
ica. James McCosh, an American philos- 
opher^ of Scotch birth, who was born in 
181 1, and died November 16, 1894, was 
probably the greatest leader in this philos- 
ophy, of the nineteenth centur3^ It would 
be well, for those who have the inclination, 
to secure the works of the authors men- 
tioned in this outline of the various philos- 
ophies of the soul, and study their bear- 
ing upon the development of thought in 
this advanced age. For a list of works 
see " The lyiterature of Psychology," in 
this volume. 
4^ The nerv^ous system as the intermediate factor in 
all sensations. (See 3^ and 4^ to observe the con- 
nection of this topic.) 
i^ The processes in every complete sensation. 

1 5 The external excitant, or physical excitant, as 
it is sometimes called. It is that which 
when presented to the nervous system under 
proper conditions will produce a physical sen- 
sation. To illustrate : A bright light placed 
before the eyes will produce a certain change 
in the opdc nerve, which is a physical sensa- 
tion. The light is the external excitant. 
2^ The sensorium, or that part of the nervous 
system engaged in conveying and receiving 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 19 

sensation ; the eye, the optic nerve, and the 
brain, in the illustration. 
3^ The mental, or psychical, excitement, sometimes 
called the sensorial excitement. It is probably 
better to say that the sensorial excitement is in 
the sensory nerves and that part of the brain 
used in receiving sensations, while the psychical 
excitement is the sensation proper, and is in the 
soul. This distinction shows that there are 
physical, or corporeal, sensations, and psychical 
sensations. By those who use unscientific 
speech the former is meant when sensation is 
referred to. 
2* Analysis of the nervous system. 
1 5 Cerebro-spinal system. 

i^ Def. — That part of the nervous sj^stem com- 
prised in tke brain, spinal cord, their nerves, 
and the ganglia belonging to them. 
2^ Parts. 

i^ The Brain, or encephalon. 

I® Weight. — In the male adult, 49 to 50 
ounces; in the female adult, 44 to 45 
ounces. 
2^ Parts. 

I ^ Cerebrum. — The portion of the brain 
occupying the top and front part of 
the cranium. Gray matter to the 
depth of }{ to }i of an inch covers 
the outer part, constituting the cor- 
tex of the cerebrum. Beneath it is 
the white matter consisting of nerve- 
fibers. It is estimated that the num- 



20 OUTI.INES OF PSYCHOIvOGY: 

ber of nerve-cells in the cerebrum alone is about 
900,000,000, while the number of fibers is probably 
about 4,500,000,000. The cerebrum is the seat of 
intelligence, and has control of all the voluntary 
movements of the body. (See outline below.) 

2^ Cerebellum. — Called the " little brain." It is situ- 
ated in the posterior part of the cranium, beneath 
the cerebrum, or brain proper, and is composed of 
gray and white matter in about the same propor- 
tions and relations as in the cerebrum, but is only 
about }i as large. Its function is not definitely 
known, but it is generally believed that the cerebel- 
lum has a coordinating power with the cerebrum 
in controlling voluntary muscular movements. As 
the cerebrum is the seat of thought, it can not be 
doubted that all voluntary muscular movements 
must be under the control of *the cerebrum, so far 
as the will is concerned, but it is believed that the 
will of the cerebrum is carried out by the cerebel- 
lum. But the fact that the cerebrum may some- 
times carry out these acts alone in case of an in- 
jury to the cerebellum, leads scientists to conclude 
that the exact function of the latter is not yet 
definitely known. 

3^ Medulla Oblongata.— This is really an enlarged 
portion of the spinal cord, situated just above the 
foramen magnum, at the base of the skull. It is 
about one inch and a quarter long by three quarters 
of an inch wide, and weighs about one ounce. Its 
weight is a little greater in females than in males. 
Its function is to control wholly or in part the ac- 
tions of the heart, lungs, and blood-vessels, and all 



OUTLINES OF rSYCIIOLOGY. 21 

vital actions. Although respiration is to some 
extent under the control of the will, yet ordi- 
narily we breath by reflex action. 
3^ Intellectual power and size of brain. 

i*^ The rule. — Great intellectual power is usually 
associated with a large brain, especially a 
large cerebrum. Examples are Abercrom- 
bie, Cuvier, Turgeneiff, Webster, Disraeli, 
and others. 
2^ The exceptions. 

i^*^ The weight of the brain is relativel}^ 
greater at birth and in childhood than in 
youth or manhood and womanhood. But 
it is a well-established fact that brain 
growth attends proper, mental exercise. 
JThe brain is largest from the ages of 40 
to 50 years, when a gradual decrease in 
size sets in. 
2^^ A few cases of imbecility have been no- 
ticed where the brain was very heavy, 
usually abnormally heav}'. 
2*7 Nerves of the brain=system. (i? The brain.) 
I* Sensory. — Those that carry sensations to the 
brain. They are also called afferent nerves, be- 
cause of the direction in which they carry sensa- 
tion. The term scnsatioii is here used in its 
physical sense, as used in pliysiolog}^ 
2^ Motor. — Those that carry impulses, or sensations, 
from the brain. They are also called efferent 
nerves. Sensory nerves are sometimes called 
centripetal nerves, because center-seeking, and 
motor nerves for the similar reason are called 



22 OUTI.INES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

centrifugal nerves. As their names indicate, 
the former are nerves of sensation proper, while 
the latter are nerves that control the motions of 
the body or of any part of it. 

3^ Mixed or compound. — Several of the cra- 
nial nerves are compound, or dual, in 
their functions, such as the trifacial, 
which arises from a sensory and a motor 
root. 
3^ The spinal cord, (i'^ Brain. 2? Nerves.) 
i^ Of w^hat it consists. — A gray axis sur- 
rounded by white matter, and investing 
membranes, occup3dng the spinal canal. 
Its length is about eighteen inches ; weight, 
one and a half ounces, or -^ of the weight 
of the brain. 
2^ Its functions. — It acts as a conductor to 
and from the brain, and by reflex action 
controls the movements of the limbs and 
exerts a certain control over the organs 
of digestion, respiration, and circulation. 
25 Sympathetic system. — (i^ Cerebro-spinal system.) 
i^ Of what it consists. — A double chain of ganglia 
situated on either side of the spinal cord and 
connected with the nerves of the spinal cord and 
the nerves of the brain by means of transverse 
connecting nerves. These ganglia are also con- 
nected with the organs of the chest and abdo- 
men. 
2? Function. — To regulate the processes of organic 
life, the inhibitory and vital processes. 
3^ The Special Senses in their relation to psychology. 



OUTLIXKS OF PSYCHOLOGY. 2$ 

i*^ The Sense of Smell. 

i' The nerve of smell. — Olfactory, ^vhich arises 
froQi the anterior portion of the base of the 
cerebrum and is spread out upon the surface 
of the turbinated bones. It is peculiar, in that 
it is the only nerve in the body known to con- 
tain gray matter in its axis. Its sensorial end- 
plates are known as the olfactory bulbs. 
2" The excitant. — The floating particles of odor- 
ous matter coming in contact with the delicate 
Schneiderian membrane, which invests the nos- 
trils. 
3^ The result. — The nerve is irritated and the sen- 
sorial excitement is the sensation of smell. 
2*^ The Sense of Taste. 
I " The nerves of taste. 

i^ The inferior branch of the trifacial nerve, also 
called the ''gustatory nerve," wdiicli supplies 
the front half of the tongue. 
2^ The glosso-pharyngeal, so called because dis- 
tributed to both tongue and throat. 
2^ The excitant. — Matter in a state of solution, 

passing over the tongue. 
3^ The result, or sensorial excitement. — The sensa- 
tions of flavors and tastes. 
4'' Peculiarities. 

i^ Modifications of the sense of taste. — Sweet- 
ness and sourness, detected in particular by 
the gustatory nerve ; and saltness and bitter- 
ness, detected by the glosso-pharyngeal. Po- 
tassium chloride, sodium sulphate, and other 
substances are exceptions. 



24 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

2^ Sensations of touch detected by the tongue. — 
Roughness, smoothness, oiHness, pungency^ 
starchiness, etc. 
3^ Sensations ot smell apparently detected by 
the tongue. — In the case of articles having an 
aroma the smell seems closely allied with the 
taste, but by closing the nostrils while tasting 
such substances the deception will be ob- 
served. (See the subject of "acquired per- 
ceptions.") 
36 The Sense of Hearing. 

i^ The nerve. — The auditory nerve, which arises 
from the medulla oblongata and supplies the in- 
ternal ear. 
2^ The excitant. — The vibrations of the media in 
which the sensorial end-plates of the auditory 
nerves are situated, caused by the vibrations of 
the external air, which have been induced by the 
sudden change in position of some material ob- 
ject. 
3'^ The result. — The sensorial excitement in this 
case results in a knowledge of the many varie- 
ties of sound. By experience we gain concepts 
of the direction, distance, and intensity of the 
differentiated energy producing the sound 
weaves. 
46 The Sense of Sight, 

i^ The nerve. — The optic nerve, w^hich has its 
origin in the anterior portions of the cerebrum, 
and whose sensorial end-plates terminate in the 
retina. The olfactory and the optic are the 
only cranial nerves arising directly from the 
cerebrum. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 25 

2^ The excitant. — The waves of ether, which occu- 
pies the interstellar space and the intermolecular 
spaces of the atmosphere. For a clear discus- 
sion of the cause of light and how it is com- 
municated, the student is referred to any good 
work on physics. 
3" The result. 

r^ Primarily considered, it gives us a knowl- 
edge of color and form. 
2^ When assisted by touch, hearing, and expe- 
rience it gives us notions of size, distance, 
roughness, smoothness, and many other qual- 
ities of objects. This is probably the most 
remarkable and wonderful of the senses when 
considered from a psychological standpoint. 
(See "acquired perceptions.") 
The Sense of Touch. 

i' Nerves of touch. — They have no special names, 
although sometimes called tactile nerves. They 
belong to the spinal cord, hence, to the cerebro- 
spinal system. The}^ end in peculiar sensorial 
end-plates in the cutis and other investing mem- 
branes. 
2^ The excitant. — Properly, touch involves pres- 
sure or actual contact of objects with portions of 
the body supplied with these nerves, the fingers 
being most .sensitive to touch. The tip of the 
tongue, however, possesses this power to a very 
high degree. 
3^ The result. — The information thus derived is 
probably the most extensive and diverse of all 
we gather by sense-perception. 



26 OUTlvINKS OF PSYCHOIvOGY. 

4^ A general observation. — It will be noticed 
that in this outline of the special senses 
three things were in each case considered : 
the excitant, the part of the sensorium 
particularly affected, and the sensorial ex- 
citement, or the sensation proper. These 
are the three necessary antecedents of 
sense-perception. 
5^ Conclusion of this topic. — It will now be 
noticed that all the outline from 4^, page 
14, to this point has dealt with the topic, 
" The relation of the soul and body." We 
now take up the study of the powers of the 
soul, but shall have frequent need to think 
of this relation of the soul, that which 
really know\s, feels, and wills, to the body, 
that of which we are so prone to think as 
knowing, feeling, and willing. 
52 The Powers of the Soul. 

i^ Its General Powers. — Consciousness, iVttention, 
and Conception. 

i^ Def. — Those powers of the soul distinguished 
from the faculties, not coordinate with them, 
but connected with them all; in conscious- 
ness the sensibilit}^ is usuall}' exercised; in 
attention, the will usually assists the sensibil- 
ity and the intellect. 
2* General Functions. — They can not act sep- 
arately from each other nor from some one or 
more of the intellectual faculties. 
3* Distinction. — K facility is a power under the 
control of the will, having some particular 
work of its own to do. — Hewett. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 27 

4"* Analysis. 

r5 Consciousness. — See*' Self-Consciousness." See 
page 41. 

i*^ Def. — Consciousness is the general power ot 
the soul by which it knows its own acts and 
states, and itself as the knower. 
2^ Authors quoted. — Consciousness can not be 
defined. — Hill. Consciousness is the power 
the mind has to know its own acts and states, 
and to know them as belonging to the Ego. — 
Hewett. Consciousness is the immediate 
knowledge the soul has of its own phenom- 
ena. — Schu3'ler. Consciousness is the inner 
perception, the perception of our thoughts 
and feelings. — Putnam. Consciousness is the 
power of the mind by which it knows its own 
acts and states. — Baker. 
3*^ Use of the term. — Denotes both an act and 

the power to which the act is referred. 
4^ Etymology. — L- con and scio, indicating that 
along with knowing an object, I know also 
the knowing. 
5*" Objects of consciousness. — The}' are all psy- 
chical phenomena, actual and present. 
i^ Distinction. 

i^ Consciousness is immediate knowledge. 
2^ Knowledge of external objects is medi- 
ate. 
12} Classes of objects of consciousness. 

i^ The Ego. — We are conscious of the 
Ego as thinking, feeling, and willing. — 
Hewett. We are not con.scious of the 



28 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 

soul, nor of the soul as knowing, feeling, and 
willing, but of the knowing, feeling, and will- 
ing. — Schuyler, with whom I agree on this 
point. I can not conceive of a consciousness 
of the soul itself, but I certainly can be con- 
scious of the knowing, feeling, and willing of 
the soul. 
2^ Acts or states. — We may be conscious of the 
activity of the mind in perceiving, remember- 
ing, etc. 
3^ All psychical phenomena, — The soul is con- 
conscious of all its phenomena. The realiza- 
tion of these phenomena is the state of con- 
sciousness. 
4^ The non-Ego. — Sir William Hamilton held 
that we may be conscious of the non-Ego, 
which is generally denied. 
5^ Products. — We may be conscious of our 
thoughts and feelings, which are the results 
of psychical action. 
6^ As to time of consciousness. — Consciousness can 
neither be before nor after a phenomenon. We are 
conscious of a phenomenon only at the instant of its 
occurrence. We are not conscious of things w^e re- 
member, but of the concepts of them, which must 
be immediately before the mind. We may also be 
conscious of a present concept of that which is 
future. 
7^ To w^hich special faculty of the soul most closely 
connected. — It is itself an act of the intellect, thousrli 
implied by all psychical phenomena — cognitions,, 
feelings, and volitions. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 29 

•8^ Kinds of consciousness. — Schuyler. 

i^ Natural consciousness. — Immediate knowledge 
of all three classes of psychical phenomena. 

2^ Etliical. — Reflection applied to moral states. 

3^ Abnormal. — As exhibited by persons who im- 
agine others are noticing their awkwardness, 
dress, etc. 

i^ Due to morbid sensitiveness. — Hewett. 
2^ To a real or supposed feeble condition of 

bod}'. 
3^ To undue pride or self-love. 
4^ To a knowledge of unworthiness. 
^^ Degress of consciousness. 

i^ Of certain organic phenomena, such as appe- 
tites, w^e are scarcely conscious. 

2'^ The stronger the cause which induces psychical 
activity, the stronger the degree of conscious- 
ness. 
30^ General conditions of consciousness. 

i^ A living subject who is conscious. 

2'^ A faculty of consciousness. 

3^ A psychical phenomenon, the only kind of ob- 
jects of consciousness. 
31^ Relation of Consciousness and Attention. 

i^ By attention, any of the degrees of conscious- 
ness may arise into the region of clear con- 
sciousness. — Baker. 

2."^ Attention is often spontaneous. In this it is 
like consciousness, and may be termed "volun- 
tary consciousness." 
:i2^ Relation of consciousness and cerebration. 

i^ Unconscious mental activity. — Strictl}- speak- 



30 OUTI.INES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

ing, there can be no unconscious mental ac- 
tivity, but many cases have been cited where 
there seems to have been mental activity 
without consciousness. 
2^ Unconscious cerebration. — In such cases of 
apparent mental activity it is not improba- 
ble that brain activity may be unaccom- 
panied by mental activity. Brain activity 
may become reflex, like muscular habits. It 
is not improbable that mental activity may 
be started in a certain direction and become 
so intense that it will continue unconsciously 
to work in that line until the result is ac- 
complished, when the cerebration becomes 
conscious again. 
13^ Cultivation. — Consciousness can not be- culti- 
vated, as it is not under the control of the wilL 
2^ Attention, (i^ Consciousness.) 

i^ Etymology. — ly. ad, meaning toward, and ten- 
der e, to stretch. 
2^ Def. — It is the concentration of consciousness 

in one direction and upon one object. 
3^ Authors quoted. — The self-governing intelli- 
gence applying itself to what it wills. — Com- 
payre. The power the mind has to bring all 
its forces to bear on one thing. — Hewett. The 
voluntary directing of the energy of the mind 
toward an object or an act. — Steele. The power 
of exercising active self-direction. — ^White. At- 
tention is conscious or unconscious. — Day. 
Although under the control of the will, it pro- 
duces no result alone, and of itself — Hewett. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 3 1 

It is not a special intellectual faculty. — Hill. The 
voluntary determination of the intelligence to ob- 
jects of knowledge. See Dewy and James. 
4*^ How the term is applied. 

i" As applied to external objects it is known as ob- 
servation, which includes both stages of cog- 
nition — perception and judgment. 
2^ As applied to subjects of our own consciousness 
it may be designated reflection, which includes 
intuition and judgment. For an explanation of 
these terms, see outline. 
5^ Classes of attention. — Voluntary and involuntar}'. 
i^ Voluntar3\ 

i^ Et3'molog3\ — From L- volens, the will. 
2^ Def — The active direction of the mind toward 
any object of knowledge, either external ob- 
jects or objects of consciousness. 
3^ Elements of voluntary attention. 

i^ The mind must have had experience in 

order to perceive relations. 
2^ The mind must Have sufficient develop- 
ment to interpret that experience. 
4^ Age at w^hich first experienced by the child. — 

About 3 to 6 months. — Gordy. 
5^ Functions. 

1 9 Development of interest in things not nat- 
urally attractive to us, but beneficial to us. 
2^ Development of continuous attention, con- 
centration, that the mind may direct its 
owm energies. 
2^ Involuntary. 

i^ Etymology. — L. in, without, and volcns. 



32 OUTI^INKS OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

2^ Def. — That attention which resuhs from the 
influence exerted upon the mind by the thing 
attended to, in and of itself. 
3^ Also called n on- voluntary. 
4^ Causes in children. — Gordy. 

i^ The quality of sensations, or their char- 
acter as pleasurable or painful. 
2^ The intensity of the sensation. 
6^ Knowledge depending on attention. 

i^ The objects of knowledge to which attention 
may be directed include ever5^thing, material ob- 
jects and objects of consciousness, upon which 
mental force may be made to bear. 
2^ Dr. Gordy says what we are conscious of de- 
pends upon attention, as does also what we per- 
ceive, remember, recollect, believe, feel, and will. 
(The student should determine in what ways 
what we feel depends upon attention. Is seeing 
a feeling? Is heariJig?) 
76 Relation of attention to mental activity. — When 
our brain activities are thoroughly habitual there is 
no attention, but it is doubtful if there is any me7i- 
tal activity in such cases. Authors generallj^ ad- 
mit that there can be no mental activity without at- 
tention. Can we attend to more than one thing at a 
time? ''In a case of perfect attention the mind's 
forces are all brought to bear upon one thing, but 
experience shows that in imperfect attention the 
mental force is divided." — Hewett. It is said that 
we could reach no conclusion in comparing two 
things unless the mind have both before it at once. 
But we believe it possible for the attention to vi- 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 33 

brate from one to the other in rapid succession. 
Try it in close analysis or comparison, and see if 
the attention must not be wholly upon the one 
while it is forming concepts of it with which to 
compare the concepts formed of the other. Sir 
William Hamilton saj'S, however, that the mind can 
attend to as many as six things at once, but. that 
the intensity is weakened in proportion to the 
number of objects before the mind. See Steele, 
Schuyler, Hewett, Gord}^ Sully, Dewey, Hamilton, 
Royce, James. 
8'^ Laws of attention. 

I' Especially with children, whatever is curious, 
odd, bright, noisy, etc., attracts the attention and 
develops it. 
2^ Whatever occasions strong emotions of pleasure 

or of pain claims the attention. 
3" The degree of the attention will vary with the 

exciting cause or stimulus. 
4" Variety of related objects attract the attention. 
5" Attention is more likel}^ to be aroused if the ob- 
ject accords with one's tastes and tendencies. — 
Baker. 
6' Weber's Law. — In order that a sensation may 
increase in quantity in arithmetical progression, 
the stimulus must increase in geometrical pro- 
gression — which expresses a general truth. 
9^^ Conditions unfavorable to attention. 
I' Too frequent repetition. 
2^ Abrupt or rapid transition from one subject to 

another. 
3^ Prolonging an effort to weariness. 
3 



34 OUTLINES OP PSYCHOLOG-Y. 

4^ External influences that are more exciting 
stimuli than those designed to be kept before 
the mind. 
5^ Mental agitation from fear, etc. 
6^ Tasks too difficult to comprehend. 
7^ 111 health causing bodily pain. 
io<5 Motives proper to employ to secure it. 
I ^ On the part of the pupil. 

I ^ The fear of pain, in exceptional cases. 

2^ The love of praise. To be used with caution. 

3^ The hope of future good. 

4^ The desire to excel in merit. 

5^ The motives of duty: do the right because it 

is right. 
6^ All proper incentives to study. The Roj-al 
Seven.— Dr. White, 
i^ A desire for standing or rank. 
2^ A desire for the approbation of equals and 

of superiors. 
3^ A desire for activity and power. 
4^ A desire for knowledge. 
5^ The hope of future good. 
6^ A sense of honor. 
7^ A sense of duty. 
2^ On the part of the teacher. 

I ^ You must be interested in your subject. 

2^ Speak in your natural tones ; be careful that 

you do not speak loud. 
3^ Express your thoughts clearly — do not con- 
fuse by too many words. 
4^ Usually stand before your class. 
5^ Direct your next question to the most inat- 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 35 

tentive pupil, if the attention is good 
with few exceptions. 
6^ Ver}" seldom teach with a book in your 

hand and 3'our CN'es on the book. 
7^ Set the example of close attention. 
116 Growth of attention. 

i^ The early life of a child is almost a continual 
exercise of this power, the stimuli being pre- 
sented through the senses, especially of 
sight, touch, and hearing. 
2'^ Cultivation. — As the attention is under the 
control of the will it can be cultivated. This 
may be done by a persistent exercise of 
the will power over the mind's movements. 
Like the law of habit, it grows by repetition 
under proper circumstances. 
3^ Rules for cultivating the attention. 

i^ Have your pupils to observe objects 

closel3\ 
2^ Have your pupils to write long sentences 
from dictation. (Length of sentence de- 
pends very largely upon grade of pupils.) 
3^ Have your pupils carry out lengthy cal- 
culations in mental arithmetic. 
4^ Have them reproduce all anal3^ses given 
by the teacher. 
4^ Results of concentrated and prolonged effort. 
— Genius is simply a persistent, continuous 
attention. Without it, the greatest natural 
genius is doomed to failure. With it, any 
student can command success. 
Conception. See Consciousness, Attention. 



36 OUTI.INES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

I ^ Etymology. — From L. coii, meaning with, and capere, 
to take, signifying a taking or grasping together. 
2^ Varied use of the term. 

I ^ Formerly used to denote the power, the process, 

and the product of forming general ideas. 
2^ Recent authors have chosen cojicept to denote 
the product of conception. 
3*^ Def — Conception is the process of forming a gen- 
eral notion, or idea, through the operations of anal- 
ysis, abstraction, and generalization. 
4*^ Authors quoted. — That process of elaboration by 
which the intellect forms general notions of classes 
of objects having common attributes. — Schuyler. 
The process of forming abstract or general ideas. — 
Hill. The process of forming a general notion of 
a class of similar objects. — Baker. The power by 
which we see with the mind's eye. — Hewett. The 
whole mental activity by which the complex proc- 
ess of analysis, abstraction, and generalization is 
performed. — Putnam. 
56 Processes, or steps of conception. 

i^ Presentation. — That step in the formation of 
ideas which consists in presenting the objects of 
knowledge through sense-perception. Some call 
this step observation. 
0^ Comparison. — That step by which objects of 
knowledge are presented to the mind by noting 
their points of similarity. 
3*^ Abstraction. — From \^.-ab, off or from, and tra- 
here^ to draw. That process by which we " draw 
off" for further attention, the common character- 
istics of the objects examined. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 37 

4^ Generalization. — L,. gcjius, meaning kind. That 
process in conception b}' which we select the 
common attributes found in an entire class of 
objects. It embraces synthetic specification, or 
the formation of species from individuals; and 
generification, or the formation of genera from 
species. 
5'' Denomination. 

i^ Def. — That step by which we assign names to 
the classes formed by generalization, and these 
classes, with the concepts of them, become 
embodied in verbal signs. 
2^ What it embraces : Nomenclature. — The col- 
lection of the names applied to the classes of 
objects grouped in a science. Terminolog^^ 
— The collection of the names of these parts 
and properties of individual objects belonging 
to a science. (Condensed from Schuyler.) 
6** Relation of conception to classification. 

i^ Classification is forming groups of objects having 

common qualities, 
2^ While conception is forming a general notion of 
the class of such objects. 
7*^ What the term conception embraces. 

i^ It is not a faculty. — It is a general power of the 
soul, largely under the control of the will, but it 
accompanies each of the mental powers, and pro- 
duces no specific result alone. 
2^ The act cf the mind and the product of this act. 
37 Concepts. 

i^ Def. — A concept is a combination of common 
attributes into a single term, but it is a men- 
tal product, iwDt a verbal or written expression. 



38 OUTlvINE^S OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

2^ Classes. 

I ^ Simple concepts. — The simple mental 
products of the representative power ; see 
images and ideas. 
2^ General concepts. — The mental notions of 
a class of objects. The simplest act of 
thinking is the forming of the general 
concept, or notion. — White. 
3^ Other terms. — Simple concepts are called 
individual concepts, and general concepts 
are called logical concepts. 
4^ Difference between them. — The former 
represent individual things, or objects, 
while the latter represent "a bundle of at- 
tributes that belong to every one of a class 
to which the terffi may be applied." 
8*^ Cultivation of conception. 

i^ Why it may be done. — Because the will has al- 
most exclusive control over our conceptions. 
2^ How it maybe done. — Hewett. 

i^ Avoid "parrot" recitations, for in them j^ou 
have words without their accompanying con- 
cepts. 
2^ Avoid mechanical reading and meaningless 

mathematical work. 
3^ Induce accurate perceptions of objects studied 
through the senses; hence, cultivate sense- 
perception. 
9^ Relation of conception to education. 

I ^ It is essential to scientific knowledge. — Not an 
accumulation of isolated facts, but of facts 
grouped in classes according to ^known laws, 
and known by a suitable nomenclature. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 39 

2* Steps of conception necessan- to a scientific knowl- 
edge. — Abstraction and generalization in particular. 
3^ Conception is developed by linguistic stud}-. 

i^ Language is made up largely of general terms, 

hence conception is developed. 
2^ It calls forth the habit of comparing. 
4* It affords a criterion for the order of stud}'. In the 
growth of the mind there are three essential proc- 
esses : 
i^ Apprehension of facts. — For example, objects 

must be presented to the senses. 
2^ Analysis of facts. — For example, the parts of 

things studied must be separated. 
3^ Synthesis of relations. — The common character- 
istics of things studied must be united under 
general terms. 
5' The method of developing abstract ideas. — Con- 
densed from "Bain's Education as a Science." 
I ^ The selection of particulars should be such as to 

show all extreme varieties. 
2^ The instances cited should bring out the agree- 
ments. 
3^ The accumulation of the facts should be continu- 
ous, until the effect is produced. 
4^ A sudden flash of agreement between things in 

many respects different is what is aimed at. 
5^ Aid can be derived from tracing the cause and 

effect. This is the crowning notion of science. 
6^ The number of instances necessary varies with 

the character of the things. 
7^ The name and the definition should be given 
along with the general notion, when it is formed. 



40 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

2^ The Soul's Individual Powers, commonly called the 
psychical powers (but general powers are also psy- 
chical). See General Powers, page 26. 
i4 The Intellect. 

1 5 Def.— The faculty of knowing.— Hill. The 
soul possessing or exercising the power to 
know. — White. To think is the same thing 
as to know and comprehend. — Compayre. 
2^ Etymology. — From L- iytter, between, and 
legere, to gather; indicating that knowledge 
is gathered in the transition from one expe- 
rience to another. 
3^ Its functions.— Sully. 

I ^ Discrimination. — The knowing of differ- 
ences. 
2^ Assimilation. — The knowing of resem- 
blances. 
4^ The product of knowing. — Knowledge. 

i^ Def. — That condition of certitude in the 
soul that arises when realities or relations 
are consciously apprehended. — Hill. 
2^ Objects of knowledge. — White. 

i^ Subjective, or subject-objects. — The 
acts and states of the soul and their 
products. 
2'^ Objective, or object-objects. — External 

material objects. 
3^ Relational, or relation-objects. — The re- 
lation of objects, whether discerned in- 
tuitively or by thought. 
36 Kinds of knowledge. 

I ^ As to manner in which known. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 41 

i^ Scientific. — Kno\vledge properly classified. 
2 ^ U n s c i e n t i fi c. — Unclassified knowledge, 
simply information. 
2^ As to its stage in the soul. 

i^ Primitive. — Crude, first knowledge, as 
gained b}' the use of the perceptive pow- 
ers alone. 
28 Developed. — Knowledge in which the sig- 
nificance, relation, and use of what has 
been gathered by the perceptive powers 
are centralized and classified by the apper- 
ceptive powers, and known by conception. 
3^ As to powers of Intellect, by which known, 
i^ Presentative knowledge. — The knowledge- 
the soul has of itself and things immedi- 
ately about it through self-consciousness, 
sense-perception, and intuition. 
2^ Representative. — Knowledge the soul has 
of objects and their qualities when nei- 
ther is actually present to the senses, but 
re-presented by ideas. 
3^ Elaborative. — Presentative knowledge 
worked out b)^ purely psychical processes 
into higher and more general forms. — Hill. 
4^ Constitutive. — Knowledge acquired b}' an 
examination of postulates and hypotheses. 
55 Intellectual powers. — Three classes. 

i*^ Presentative powers. — Three in number. The 
presentative powers may be called the acq ids i- 
tional powers, since only by their use can the 
soul acquire knowledge. 
1 7 Self -Consciousness. — Authors generally 



42 OUTLINK6 OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

make no distinction between consciousness and 
self-consciousness. For a study of the former, see 
" General Powers." There may be the following 
distinction : 

i^ Consciousness includes the three elements in 
every act of knowledge : The knowing subject, 
the object of knowledge, and the states of the 
soul as affected by the object of knowledge. But 
self-consciousness is limited to the soul's knowl- 
edge of itself in the act of consciousness. 
2^ Forms of self-consciousness. — Hill. 

i^ Spontaneous. — May be called inherent, such 
as savages possess — a consciousness without 
an inquiry into cause and effect. 
2^ Reflective. — "That energetic realization of 
self-existence acquired by profound reflection 
upon the nature and cause of our beings." 
I ^ ^ Its normal forms. — The philosophical and 

the ethical. 
2^^ Its abnormal forms. — The precocious, the 
egotistic, and the hypochondriacal. 
3 7 Sense=perception. 

i^ Def. — The soul's power to know material ob- 
jects, to know the non-Ego. It is the founda- 
tion of all our knowledge, but not the immedi- 
ate source of all knowledge, as we ma}^ gain 
knowledge by intuition and self-consciousness 
also. As indicated by the term itself, it is per- 
ception through the senses. 
2^ Etymology. — From Ivatin/>^r, meaning through, 
and capere, to take. This implies taking in 
knowledge through one or more of the senses. 



OUTI^INES OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 43 

.3^ Uses of the term. 

i^ To designate a power. — We speak of the per- 
ception possessed by the soul. 

2 9 To designate an act. — As " your peroeption of 
sound is not acute." 

3^ To designate the thing perceived. 
4^ The physical conditions of sense-perception. 

i^ Material object, or external excitant, capable of 
furnishing an impression. 

2^ The nervous organism, or sensorium, adapted to 
receiving and conveying impression. 

3^ The sensorial excitement, or the actual excita- 
tion of the sensorium. These three conditions 
of perception may be called the antecedents of 
perception. 
5^ The psychical elements of sense-perception. 

i^ Perception proper. — The act by which the e^^- 
temal object is known. An act or process of 
the mind immediately successive to a sensation, 
by which we refer this seUvSation to something 
external as its cause. — Steele. 

2^ Sensation. — A state of mind produced by some 
external object or influence operating on the 
sensorium. The pleasures or pains which im- 
mediately follow a material phenomenon. — Com- 
payre. A cognized affection of the nerves. — 
Hewett. 
6^ Classes of sense=perceptions. 

i^ An original perception is one that is obtained 
from the excitation of a single sense, and that 
the one exercised. 

2^ An acquired perception is given by one sense as 
a sign of knowle-dge usually gained by another. 



44 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 

i^^ Examples. — By the sound in the stetho- 
scope the physician knows the condition of 
the heart, though he can not see it. By rap- 
ping on a barrel we know by the sound 
whether it is empty, partly filled, or entirely 
filled. Here the sense of sound gives us an 
acquired perception that might be given by 
the sense of sight. (I^et the student give six 
other examples of acquired perceptions.) 
2^^ Classes of acquired perceptions. 

1^1 Those of touch are the most valuable. 
To the artisan they are a kind of me- 
chanical conscience. 
2^^ Of smell. — The odor of a peach wnll 

cause us to identify the object. 
3^^ Of taste. — By taste we have perceptions 
of objects commonly known to us by 
smell. 
4^^ Of hearing. — We have perceptions of a 
person by the familiar sound of his foot- 
step. 
5^ ^ Of sight. — We judge of distance by sight, 
also the intensity of color and distinct- 
ness of outline. We judge of the mag- 
nitude of objects by distance and by 
comparing them with other objects 
known to us or in the same view with 
other objects. (Why does the sun ap- 
pear larger when near the horizon than 
at midday ?) 
7^ Classification of the Senses. 

i^ Molar, or dynamical senses. — Tactile, the sense: 
of touch, and acoustic, the sense of hearinof. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 45 

2 9 Molecular, or chemical senses. — Dialytic, the 
sense of taste, and catalytic, the sense of smell. 

3^ Intermolecular, or etheric senses. — Thermic, the 
sense of temperature, and photic, the sense of 
sight. (The student should tell why each of 
these terms is so used.) 
^8 Percepts. 

I ^ Def. — A percept is a simple and single presenta- 
tion of sense-perception — an isolated fragment of 
knowledge. Any object of knowledge as known 
by us is a group of percepts. Putnam says a 
percept is a complete mental product of the act 
of perceiving. It is the individual notion we 
get of an object by our senses w^hile we are ex- 
ercising our senses upon it. (See Dewey, Mc- 
Cosh, Lindner.) 

2^ Difference between percept and concept. — When 
our senses cease to act upon an object, the no- 
tion that persists or returns is a concept of it. — 
Hewett. When several successive and related 
percepts are united into one psychical whole the 
result is a concept, particularly a sense-concept. 

3^ Difference between percept and image. — A sense- 
concept, or a percept revived by an act of the 
memory, is usually called an image, but it is 
doubtful if percepts of smell, sound, and taste 
may be revived into images. They may be 
called sense-concepts, however. 
^8 Relation of perception to education. 

I ^ Sense-perception furnishes the crude material for 
all mental activity, except that mentioned in in- 
tuition and the soul's knowledo:e of itself in self- 



46 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

c®.nsciousness, which together include much less 
than sense-perception. 

2^ The growth of the perception is the growth of our 
discriminative power ; that is, our consciousness of 
differences and agreements. 

3^ A stud}^ of the laws of perception teaches us that 
the earliest studies of childhood should be objective 
and presentative. (See chapter on ''Observation of 
Children.") 

4^ Concrete facts and not abstract ideas should be im- 
parted, and by actual observation whenever possi- 
ble. 

5^ The method of study should be that of object les- 
sons. 

6^ The improvement of sense-perception is attained by 
exercise. 

7 ^ The degree of education and the kind of knowledge 
the child has already obtained through sense-percep- 
tion before he enters school should be recognized 
there, and his training continued according to the 
laws of mind growth. The perceptive faculty 
should continue to be exercised. 

8^ These facts are the basis of Kindergartenism, which 
was founded by Frederick W. Froebel, a German 
thinker, 1 782-1852, who borrowed the idea from 
John H. Pestalozzi, a Swiss educator, 1 746-1 827. 
The etymology of the word kindergarten really 
means a children's garden, a place where the child- 
mind can be naturally developed by exercise in the 
lines of activity in which the child-mind delights. 
Here is an all-important thought for teachers of 
primary grades. 



OUTI.INES OF PSYCHOIvOGY. 47 

37 Intuition. — See i^ Self-consciousness, etc. 

I ^ Def. — That power of the soul by which we know 
certain fundamental things without being taught. 
— Hewett. The power of mind which makes us 
acquainted with simple, primary ideas and truths. 
— Putnam. 
2^ Relation. — Knowledge that appears to come of 
itself by some law of mind, but not by any proc- 
ess of reasoning. 
3^ What intuition embraces. — Ideas and truths. 
1 9 Intuitive Ideas. 

I ^ ^ Def. — Ideas that spring from the mind's 

own energy. 
2^^ Classes of intuitive ideas. 

i^^ Ideas of space. — Evidently space is 
not known through the senses, nor 
by self-consciousness. 
2^^ Ideas of duration are intuitive. 
3^^ Ideas of time are intuitive. 
4^ ^ Ideas of being. — All men naturally, 
intuitively, believe in their own exist- 
ence. 
5^^ Ideas of right and wrong. — Children 
naturally have an idea of right and 
wrong at a very early age. Teachers 
should place much stress upon this 
fact in dealing with the young child. 
Some authors deny that ideas of right 
and wrong are intuitive. The student 
should attempt to answer the follow- 
ing questions : Does a little child 
have an idea or conception of right 



48 OUTlvINKS OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

and wrong without being taught? Have 
savages ideas of right and wrong? 
6^^ Ideas of personal identit3^ — I can not rid 
myself of the idea that I am the same 
person I always was. No testimony, evi- 
dence, or argument could change my con- 
viction ; hence the idea is intuitive. 
3^^ Nature. — A knowledge of intuitive ideas is in- 
nate, and for that reason intuition may be called 
natural reason. Idiots are lacking in intuition, 
while an insane person may lose thons intuition 
and still reason logicall3\ (Explain how this 
can be possible.) 
39 Intuitive Truths. 

i^^ Def. — Truths which every sane and sound mind 
apprehends at once, without the aid of mem-, 
ory, judgment, or reason. 
2^^ Synonyms. — Necessary truths, self-evident 

truths. 
2,^^ Characteristics, or tests. — If a truth possesses 
the following characteristics it is intuitive : 
I ^ ^ Universality. — It must be the truth, every- 
where and at all times. 
2^^ Self-evidence. — They can not be demon- 
strated. No amount of evidence can make 
them more distinct. 
3^^ Necessity. — To contradict any intuitive 
truth is at once manifestly absurd. We can 
not disbelieve them. 
4^ ^ Singleness. — No intuitive truth can be re- 
solved into other truths — they can not be 
analyzed into simplicity. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 49 

4^ ^ Examples of such truths. 

i^^ Two things can not occupy the 

same space at the same time. 
2^^ The whole is equal to the sum of 

all its parts. 
3^^ All axiomatic truths. 
Representative Powers. See i^ Presentative. 
i^ Def. — Those intellectual powers by which ob- 
jects, their qualities and relations, not actually 
present to the senses, are represented by con- 
cepts, ideas, and images. Let the student see 
the definition of each of these terms. 
-2^ Illustration. — A year ago I witnessed a memora- 
ble scene in Chicago. At that time I had imme- 
diate or presentative knowledge of the objects 
about me. To-day I have a representative idea 
of that scene that still gives me a distinct knowl- 
edge of it. 
3^ May very appropriately be called \.\iq expressio7ial 
powers, since by their use it is made possible to 
express what the soul has acquired. 
4^ Classification. 

18 Phantasy. (2^ Imagination. 3^ Memory.) 
1 9 Def. — The power of the soul to reproduce 
its past acts and states spontaneously and 
involuntarily. The images thus repro- 
duced are not recognized as products of 
past experience, and usually seem as pres- 
ent realities; They are not reproduced as 
they existed in the reality. 
2^ Etymology. — From the Greek phantazehiy 
to cause to appear. 



50 OUTI^INES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

3 9 When exercised. — When the other intellectual 

powers and the will are at least partially passive. 

It occurs in reverie, dreaming, delirium, som- 

■ nambulism, hypnotism, and insanity. The first 

is the simplest form. 
4^ Distinction between phantasy and memory. 
I ^ ^ The function of phantasy is to reproduce. 
2^^ That of memory is to recognize. 
5^ Causes. — ''A heat-oppressed brain," disordered 
stomach, anticipation of future pleasures, brood- 
ing over real or imagined wrongs, and various 
forms of disease. 
6^ Characteristics of the idea reproduced by phan- 
tasy. 
I ^ ^ It is less vividly realized than the original, 

because not a true reproduction. 
2^^ The ideas are slowly combined. 
3^^ The representative image usually contains 
fewer elements than the original. 
7^ The modes of reproducing images. 

I ^ ^ By physical stimulation. — Hill says sounds 
have been known "to ring" in the ears for 
fifteen days after a musical concert. 
2^^ By physiological stimulation. — By over- 
working the body, by sleeping too soon after 
a meal, or as the result of disease. 
. ' 3^^ By psychical stimulation. — In phantasy the 
images may magnify or minify the reality 
beyond a possibility ; stimulation as a re- 
sult of excessive feelings of pleasure or of 
pain — in the former case we may be led to 
build " air-castles." 



OUTLINES OE PSYCHOLOGY. 5 1 

Imagination. 

i^ Def. — The power to modify and recombine im- 
ages and ideas. Sense-concepts are not repro- 
duced in imagination. (Why?) 
2^ Activities of the imagination. — Ruskin. 

I ^ ^ Associative, as exercised by the painter who 

imagines an object less than its real size. 
2^^ Penetrative, when one seeks out the central 

idea in connection with an object. 
3^^ Contemplative, when one is led to employ 
other images in connection with an object. 
3^ Limits. — Imagination recombines truthful con- 
cepts into complex images and pictures unlike 
anything known, but still within the limits of 
possibility, while phantasy combines without re- 
gard to law or possibility. Baker says " Phan- 
tasy simply recalls, memory recognizes, but im- 
agination constructs," to which we would add, 
Phantasy recalls and reconstructs without regard 
to the possible. 
4^ Varieties of imagination. — Hill. 

i^ ^ Scientific, in which the end is to realize more 
completely the true relation of things. It 
has three forms — mathematical, mechanical, 
and philosophical. 
2^^ Artistic, the end being to realize such rela- 
tions as will give pleasure to our aesthetic 
nature, under the guidance of sensibility. 
Its forms are, poetical, pictorial, and archi- 
tectural. 
3^^ Ethical, the end being the realization of an 
ideal character and conduct, such as will 



52 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOIvOGY. 

satisfy the convictions of conscience, under the 
guidance of the will. This last form is bj^ no 
means the least important. It should be the 
constant aim of the teacher to cultivate thons 
own ethical imagination, and to hold up con- 
stantly to the pupils' view the ideal manhood 
and womanhood. Here is one of the most fer- 
tile fields in which the teacher may sow the 
seeds of right moral training. 
5^ Relation of imagination to education. 
I ^ "^ Used in acquiring knowledge. 

I ^ ^ In reading we must exercise the imagina- 
tion in combining into mental pictures the 
elements of thought suggested. 
2^^ In listening we must do the same. Com- 
paratively few people can listen well. 
3^^ In studying science. — For instance, in 
chemistry : atoms and molecules are invisi- 
ble. In astronom}^ : the solar system as a 
whole is not presented to the senses. In 
geology : we can picture geological periods 
only in succession. In geometry : we can 
comprehend figures by the aid of the imag- 
ination. 
4^^ In acquiring immediate knowledge we 
must use it. The senses give us only frag- 
ments of knowledge, which must be com- 
bined and unified in the mind. 
2^^ Used in rhetorical production. — In composition 
it aids us to grasp the subject ; to form a plan ; 
in the search for material ; in arranging this to 
meet a purpose ; in the selection of figures of 
speech. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 53 

^^^ Other uses of imagination. — Hewett. 

i^i For pure enjoyment. How can its exercise 
afford us enjoyment? 

2^1 Imagination may lighten life's burdens.— In 
leading us into the contemplation of new 
scenes, in leading us into fancy, in leading us 
to anticipate better things in this hfe and a 
better life to come. 

3^ 1 It gives vividness and force to language. 

4^ ^ It is essential to success in some of the most 
practical affairs of life. Illustrate. 

5^1 It makes possible all that art gives us, both of 
enjojanent and of culture. 

6^^ It gives us the idea of personal excellence 
toward which we strive. 

7 1 1 To the teacher, it may be of great service in 
imparting knowledge ; it may assist greatly in 
governing, especially in the case of small chil- 
dren. The successful building of good char- 
acter is not possible without appeal to the 
imagination. 
4^ ^ General laws of imagination. 

I ^ 1 In imagination we use the materials derived 
from our experience. 

2^^ We only imagine particular and concrete no- 
tions, while we may think abstract and gen- 
eral notions. 

3^^ The imagination tends toward the production 
of ideals only. 

4^ ^ The imagination constructs according to the 
laws of association, which see under " Mem- 
ory." 



54 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY^ 

5'^^ The training of the imagination, 

i^^ The characteristic of an undisciplined mind. — 
Superfluity of images and ideas, disorderly, 
lacking in unity and design. 
2"^^ Aim of the educator. — To prune away redun- 
dancies, to supply deficiencies, and restore 
. unity and order in the mental storehouse. 
3^^ Means of training. 

1^2 By having pupils observe nature. — "In 
her visible forms she speaks a various 
language." I^ead pupils to interpret this 
language. The schools have not yet 
placed sufficient stress upon this obser- 
vation work to be done by the pupil. 
Possibly it is because teachers have not 
yet sufficiently observed the c/ii/d. 
2 ^ ^ By practicing the paraphrasing of poems. 
3^ 2 By the study of imaginative literature. 
4^ ^ By having pupils practice waiting on sub- 
jects purely imaginative, construct ques- 
tions and problems, and make efforts at 
poetry. This wonderful faculty is very 
active in children, and should be carefully 
" drawn out " by the teacher. 
6^^ Phases of imagination. — White. 

I ^ ^ Modifying phase. — Appears very early in the 
child's life, and includes, ist, the imagining of 
one thing to be another known thing; 2d, 
the imagining of a known object, material or 
spiritual, to be enlarged or diminished, or oth- 
erwise changed. 
2^^ Constructive phase. — Eminently the school 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 55 

phase, and is used in teaching reading, 
geograph}', histor}-, etc. In this phase 
the imagination recombines the con- 
cepts formed by reading or ''hearing- 
language" into possible wholes consist- 
ent with the subject imaged. 
3^^ Creative phase. — The imagination that 
furnishes the artist, inventor, and dis- 
coverer with their ideals, and character- 
izes the dramatist, poet, and novelist. 
riemory. (i^ Phantasy. 2^ Imagination.) 
i^ Def. — That representative power which brings 
before the mind concepts of absent objects, caus- 
ing us to recognize and reknow them as once 
known. 
2^ Authors quoted. — The soul's power to represent 
and reknow objects previously known or experi- 
enced.— White. The power of the mind to re- 
tain, to reproduce, and to recognize its previous 
acquisitions. — Putnam. The capacit}^ to retain, 
and the power to recall, represent, and recognize 
our previous cognitions. — Schu5der. That in- 
tellectual function which preserves and renews 
inner states of consciousness. — Compayre. The 
reproduction of some idea once present in the 
mind but not now so, with a reference of it to its 
proper place in time. — McLellan. See James. 
3« The acts of memory. — Three in number, 
i^^ Retention. 

i^^ Def. — That function of the memory 
w^hich produces a continuation of con- 
cepts in a passive state of intelligence. 



56 OUTlvINKS OF PSYCHOIvOGY. 

2^^ Its importance. — Recollection or reproduc- 
tion depends upon retention. Retention 
depends upon the degree of attention 
mainly. 
2^^ Reproduction. 

i^^ Def. — That function of memory which 
brings again into consciousness the con^ 
cepts of objects once known but not now 
present. 
2^^ Importance. — Our acquisitions of knowl- 
edge are of no use to us unless we can 
recall them with readiness and accuracy 
when we will. See " Laws of Association," 
page 58. 
3^^ Recognition. 

1 1 ^ Def — That function of memory which re- 
knows concepts when recalled as beings 
former acquisitions of the intellect. 
2^^ Importance. — It is the last and completing 
act of memory. Retention and reproduc- 
tion would both be useless without recog- 
nition. 
4^ Varieties of memory. 

I ^ ^ Perfect and imperfect. — In perfect memory we 
recognize the time and place ; /. e., when and 
where the object was formerly known. Very 
few of our acts of memory are perfect. 
2^^ Voluntary and involuntary " memory." — These 
terms are more properly applied to recollection 
or reproduction. Voluntary recollection is the 
recalling of past acquisitions through an effort 
of the will. This recognizes a very important 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 57 

law, that the power of recollecting is increased 
by exercise. Involuntary recollection is the 
recalling of concepts through their association 
with ideas already in the mind, and without an. 
effort of the will. 
59 Conditions on which to improve memory. 

i^° Make your acquisitions under the most favor- 
able circumstances of physical and mental 
states. 

2^*^ Preserve the vigor of the mind by exercise. 

3^^ Frequently repeat your cognitions and recol- 
lections. 

4^*^ Make frequent and accurate reproductions of 
your acquisitions through the medium of lan- 
guage — write them and speak them. 

5^^ Always ascertain relations of objects, and store 
up concepts of them as classified knowledge. 

6^^ Always strive to identify reproduced ideas, un- 
derstand what you may think you know but in 
reality only seem to know. 
6^ Forgetfulness. 

i^*^ Amnesia. — A loss of memory; caused by dis- 
eases or wounds affecting the brain, old age, 
excessive use of the memory, or by anaesthet- 
ics. 

2'^^ Degrees of forgetfulness. — Schuyler. 

I ^ ^ When the displacement is momentary. 
2^^ When the withdrawal of attention is vol- 
untary. 
3^^ When the recollection requires an effort. 
4I ^ When we can not, at present, recall. 
5^^ When repeated efforts to recall have failed. 



^8 OUTI.INKS OF PSYCHOIvOGY; 

79 The Laws of Association. 

I ^ ^ Def. — They are laws governing the relaticxi of 
impressions. They were first laid down b}^ 
Aristotle. (See " History of Kducation.") 
2^° Classification. 

I ^ ^ Primary, or objective, laws. — Refer to the 
relations existing between thoughts, or the 
objects of thought. — See McCosh's Psychol- 
ogy, also James, Dewey, Royce. 
i^^ The I^aw of Similarity. — Objects or 
thoughts which resemble each other 
tend to recall each the other. 
2^ ^ The Law of Contrast.— Contrasted ideas 
tend to recall each other. Many ob- 
jects, also, when presented to the mind 
tend to recall other objects in contrast 
with them. 
3^2 The Law of Contiguity. — Objects and 
ideas associated in time or place tend 
to recall each other, 
i^^ Contiguity of time. — Very impor- 
tant in school instruction. We as- 
sociate Washington and the Revo- 
lution; Lincoln and emancipation ; 
and many of the most important 
facts in history. 
2^^ Contiguity of place. — Events are 
associated with the places at which 
they occurred ; the metals with the 
mountainous countries ; the grains 
with the fertile soil, and numerous 
other examples in history and ge- 
ography. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 59 

.2^^ Secondar}^, or subjective, laws. — Refer to 

conditions of both mind and body which 

contribute to make the association of ideas 

more complete. 

.1^2 ^jig relation of cause and effect. — By 
reason the mind wdll arrive at a con- 
clusion when a cause is knowm, or ac- 
curately presume the cause when the 
effect is known. The tendency of 
many teachers is to pass hurriedly from 
effect to cause or from cause to effect 
^thout having pupils determine or 
theorize upon probable cause or proba- 
ble effect. Not only is memory greatly 
'Strengthened by the careful observ- 
ance of this lav;, but the reason also is 
strengthened. 

2^^ Exclusive attention and clear discrim- 
ination during the acquisition of knowl- 
edge will tend to fix that knowledge. 

3^2 Familiar objects and thoughts often re- 
viewed tend to make knowledge more 
permanent — hence, the importance of 
repetition, even though it be merely 
mechanical with children. Review I 

4^^ If our individual feelings, habits, and 
tendencies are favorable, ideas will be 
most permanent. 
5^2 '^\iQ more recent the experience the 
more readily it may be recalled. 
$>^ Cultivation of the memory. 

i^° General rule. — If the teacher or the student ad- 
here strictly to the application of the laws of as- 



6o OUTIvINKS OF PSYCHOIvOGY. 

sociation in their connection with at- 
tention and reproduction, a sound and 
vigorous memory will be the reward. 
2^^ Special rules. 

i^^ Skillful questioning brings the 
mind in close contact with the re- 
lations between facts, and these re- 
lations become the bonds of associ- 
ation for the memory. — Dr. Baker. 
2^^ For the greater part, memory 
should be a memory of ideas 
rather than of words. 
3^ ^ Interest is the mother of attention, 
and attention is the mother of 
memory ; hence, cause an interest 
to spring up in the mind of the 
student. 
3^^ Mnemonic devices. — Simonides, a 
Greek poet of 500 B. C, was the first 
to use this method. The value of 
mnemonics is questionable. In some 
instances they assist what may be 
called the mechanical memory. The 
stanza concerning the number of da5^s 
in each month is a servicable mnemon- 
ic. Also the stanza concerning the 
Presidents. See Sully's Hand-Book 
for an excellent treatise upon the sub- 
ject of memory culture. 
3^ Thought Powers. 2^ Representative. 

I ^ Def. — The powers of intellect by which we form 
and rationally apply general conceptions. 



OUTI.INES OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 6 1 

12^ May also be called the relational powers of the in- 
tellect, since by their use the soul apperceives the 
relation between the percepts resulting from the 
presentation of the facts of knowledge to the soul 
through the acquisitional powders. This power to 
correlate percepts into the concepts of the ex- 
pressional is called apperception. See article on 
"The New Pedagogics" in this volume. 
3^ Classification. — Conceptive Generalization, Judg- 
ment, and Reason. 

1 8 Conceptive Generalization, or Conception. — 
The author thinks this one of the intellectual 
powers inseparably connected with the other 
functions of the intellect, hence has classed it as 
a General Powder, which see, page 35. 
:2fi Judgment. 

i^ Def. — The process of asserting agreement or 

disagreement between ideas. — Hill. 
2.^ A judgment. — The psychical product of judg- 
ing when expressed iii a proposition is called 
a judgment. 

i^*^ Parts of judgments. — Every judgment 
embraces the expression of two related 
ideas. One of these is the subject, the 
other the predicate. They are joined by 
the copula. These are the three neces- 
sary parts of a proposition. 
2^ ^ How a judgment is obtained. — By affirm- 
ing or denying one thing of another. It 
can only be arrived at by comparing the 
agreements, relations, and differences be- 
tween ideas or thino-s. 



62 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 

3^ What judgment implies. — No one can form a judg- 
ment without a preexisting knowledge of the agree- 
ments or differences between the things to be 
judged. This knowledge may be obtained almost 
immediately before making a judgment concerning: 
them, but it must be known. 
4^ Age at which judgment is first developed. — It is an. 
earlier faculty than reason, and is probably mani- 
fest in observing children at the age of 3 or 4 years. 
Dr. White thinks that the judgment awakens at the 
age of 3 and reason at the age of 6, generally. See 
view expressed under "Reason," on page 64. 
59 Classification of Judgments. 
I ^ ^ As to origin. 

i^^ A primitive judgment. — Not derived front 
any other judgment, and may be intuitive 
or a mere assumption. 
2^ ^ A derivative judgm^ent. — One derived from 
other judgments, and may be called demon- 
strative when capable of proof, and prob- 
lematical when incapable of proof. 
2^^ As to relation of their two ideas. 

I ^ ^ Affirmative. — When the two ideas are con- 
sonant, or possess agreement; as, "The 
man is insane." 
2^^ Negative. — When the two ideas are not 
compatible, or possess disagreement; as, 
"The man is not insane." 
As to their scope, or quantity. 
I ^ ^ Singular, or particular. — Those made about 
single things or parts of a class ; as, " This 
man is insane." 



10 



OUTI.INES OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 63, 

2^^ Universal. — Those relating to classes or 
the whole of a subject; they must be 
true at all times and in all places ; as, 
" No work of man is enduring," showing 
also that singular and universal judg- 
ments may be afiirmative or negative. 
4I ^ As to form. 

i^^ Categorical. — When the relation is ex- 
pressed without qualification by con- 
ditions; as, ''Man is mortal," ''Some 
men are wealthy." 
2^^ Conditional. — In which the judgment is 
conditioned on an hypothesis, an alter- 
nativCj or both ; as, " If Mars is a fixed 
star, it is a sun." 
69 Relation of judgment to education. 

I ^ ^ How far can we encourage independence of 
judgment in the learner? Hill says " To de- 
velop power without conceit is the teacher's 
difficult task." The teacher should lead out 
and guide the self-confidence of the pupil, 
but give thon to see that thons judgments 
must be subject to the revision and correc- 
tion of the teacher. 
2^^ Cultivation of the judgment. — The exact sci- 
ences and experiments in the laboratory are 
the best means of cultivating the judgment. 
All lessons gained by experience strengthen 
the judgment. 
38 Reason. See Conception and Judgment. 

1 9 Def. — The process by which we prove the truth 
or falsity of a proposition. 



•64 OUTI.INKS OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

2^ Authors quoted. — A process of inference in which 
a new judgment is derived from other known judg- 
ments. — Hill. A combination of judgments brought 
together in such a way that the result is a legiti- 
mate conclusion of the comparison. — Compayre. 
The process of comparing judgments. — Putnam. 
39 When do children begin to reason ? — I believe 
that children reason at a much earlier age than we 
have been wont to believe. The very fact that the 
child is inquisitive is sufficient evidence that the 
child reasons. I would say there are three stages 
of reasoning (by this I do not mean abstract rea- 
soning) : 

ii*^ The ''What" period.— Usually about the age 

of two years the normal child asks a great 

many whats about almost everything thon sees. 

^10 'j^he '' Why " period.— By the time the child is 

four years of age many whys are asked. 
310 O^he "How" period.— Before the child is six 
thon asks how, and if a boy, he will be attempt- 
ing to find out how things are done, even 
though he must destroy the object to learn the 
answer to his question. 
4^ The forms of reasoning. — When expressed in full, 
the process of reasoning is expressed in a regular 
series of judgments. 

i^"^ Implicit. — When the grounds for the conclu- 
sion are assumed as understood and admitted. 
See enthymeme. 
2^^ Explicit. — When the whole series of necessary 
judgments are formally expressed. See syllo- 
gism. 



OUTI.INKS OF PSYCHOLOGY. 65 

Methods of reasoning. 
i^^ Induction. 

I ^ ^ Def. — The process of inference, or the proc- 
ess of inferring general judgments from 
particular instances. 

2^^ Authors quoted. — The process of rising 
from particular truths to general truths. — 
Compayre. The operation of reaching a 
general truth by an examination and com- 
parison of facts. — Sully. Reasoning from 
individuals or particular classes to general 
facts. — Steele. In short, it may be called 
proceeding from the known to the un- 
known, from fact to law. 

3^^ Its form. — One of the three terms may be 
omitted, but three propositions may be 
used in induction. The conclusion reached 
by induction may be used as a premise in 
deduction, which see. 

4^ ^ Basis. — *' The belief in the uniformity of 
the laws of nature is the ground upon which 
we argue from the known to the unknown." 
— Dr. Baker. See Ladd, Baldwin, De Gar- 
mo, and James. 

5^^ Processes of complete induction. 
1^2 Observation, or experiment. 
2^2 Stating an hypothesis. 
3^2 Reversing by deduction, and verifica- 
tion. 
310 Deduction. 

i^^ Def. — An act of judgment by a mediate 
process in which we arrive at a particular 
conclusion based* on a general law. 
5 



66 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 

2^^ Authors quoted. — The process by which we derive 
a particular truth from a general truth. — Hewett. 
Deduction descends from principle to consequence. 
— Compayre. Reasoning from a general fact to a 
particular fact. — White. See Baldwin. 
5^1 Forms of deduction. 

1 1 2 The enthymeme. — An enthymeme is an 
abridged syllogism, a statement in which a 
conclusion is reached by omitting one of the 
three propositions of the syllogism. The 
omitted statement must be evidently true in 
order that the conclusion may be undeniable. 
2i2 The syllogism. 

i^^ Def. — That form of deduction in which 
the conclusion is reached by means of 
three related propositions. 
2^3 Parts. 

i^* Major premise. — The proposition con- 
taining the major term and expressing 
an affirmation of the class; "All men 
make mistakes." 
2^* Minor premise. — The proposition that 
states that the individual in question 
belongs to the class named in the 
•major premise; '' Charles Brown is a 
man." 
3I * Conclusion. — The proposition express- 
ing the resulting judgment based on 
a comparison of the two premises ; 
"Therefore, Charles Brown makes 
mistakes." 
3^^ The terms. — The subject of the conclusion 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 6/ 

is the Minor Term ; the predicate 
of the conclusion is the Major 
Term ; the term with which these 
two are compared is the Middle 
Term. 
4^^ Illustration. — In the example giv- 
en, " Charles Brown " is the minor 
term; "makes mistakes" is the 
major term; "man" is the middle 
term. 
6^ Relation of reason to education. — In- 
ductive reasoning is best developed by 
a study of the natural sciences, while 
deductive reasoning is greatly improved 
by a study of mathematics. The im- 
portance of developing the reasoning 
powers of pupils can hardly be overes- 
timated by the teacher. 
2* Sensibility, (i^ Intellect, page 40.) 

i^ Def. — The soul exercising the power to feel. 
2^ What it includes. — Corporeal feelings and psy- 
chical feelings. 
3^ The sensibilities. — The term is applied to the 

various states of feeling. 
4^ Classification. 

i^ Corporeal feelings. — Outlined in connection 
with the nervous system and sense-percep- 
tion. 
26 Psychical feelings. 

i^ Def. — States of consciousness induced by 
the influence of external objects upon the 
nature of the soul itself. 
2^ Classes. 



68 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

i^ The Emotions. 

i^ Def. — Simple feelings arising in the mind in con- 
sequence of some knowledge of certain facts, or 
some general consciousness of condition.— Steele, 
p. 174. 
2^ Classification. 

i^*^ Instinctive. — Those feelings of joy or sor- 
row experienced especially by young chil- 
dren, usually aimless, and occasioned by an 
accumulation of energy or a lack of energy. 
2^^ Rational. — Those feelings that arise in the 
soul in consequence of some activity of the 
intellectual powers. They may be excited 
through the senses, or by recollection, or by 
anticipation, 
i^^ Egoistic emotions. — Pertain to self. 

1^2 Joy and sorrow. — These terms in- 
clude many forms of gladness and 
depression, tnirthfulness and melan- 
choly, etc. 
2^2 Content and discontent. — May be 
made to include satisfaction and dis- 
satisfaction. 
3^2 Pride and humiliation. — With the 
first might be placed self-love, self- 
respect, etc. 
4I 2 Hope and fear. — May be subdivided. 
2^^ Altruistic emotions. — Pertain to others. 
I ^ 2 Sympathy and antipathy. 
2^2 lyove and hatred. — These may be 
classed under the affections, which 
see. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 69 

3^1 Esthetic emotions. 

1 1 2 Wit, humor, the ludicrous, etc. 
2^2 Beauty, grandeur, sublimity, etc. 
4I ^ Ethical emotions. 

1^2 Emotions of right and wrong. 
2^2 Of duty, responsibility, obligation, 
etc. 
The Affections. 

I® Def. — They are feelings of the soul directed 
toward external objects, such as the love of God> 
of home, of country, of kindred, etc. 
2^ Classification. 

I ^ ^ The beneficent affections. — Feelings of good- 
will toward those we wish to benefit in some 
way. 
i^^ Domestic affections, such as parental 

love, filial love, and fraternal love. 
2^^ Social affections, very numerous. 

1^2 Friendship, gratitude, sympathy, 

compassion, etc. 
212 Patriotism and philanthropy. — Pa- 
triotism is that feeling which causes 
us to place first in our affections the 
ethics of our families, then of our 
neighbors, then our state, and next 
our country. Philanthropy is a feel- 
ing of good-will going out to the 
human race in general with a de- 
sire to make all mankind better. 
210 'j^^ie defensive affections. — Putnam, p. 138. 
i^^ Def. — Feelings that prompt to self-de- 
fense or the protection of others. — Same. 



70 OUTIylNES OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 

2^ ^ Resentment. — " It springs up in the soul 
when we believe ourselves to have been 
insulted, injured, or wantonly wronged 
by deliberate intention, and when the 
injury or wrong may work serious harm 
to us in person, property", or reputation." 
— Same, p. 139. 
3^1 Indignation. — The feeling which 
prompts one to protect and defend oth- 
ers who have been unjustly injured or 
wronged. 
3^*^ The maleficent affections. 

I ^ ^ Def. — Those feelings directed toward 
others with the intent to do them harm. 
2^^ Some of the forms. — Anger, hate, prej- 
udice, jealousy, envy, revenge, malice. 
3^ Importance of the affections. — The teacher 
should strive to understand human nature. A 
careful study of the affections in their relation to 
the work of the school is of vast importance to 
every teacher. (See *' Observation of Children.") 
38 The Desires. 

i^ Def. — The longings of the soul for some real or 

supposed good not possessed. 
2^ Classification. 

1 1 ^ Desire for property. — The mainspring of in- 
dustry, all advancement and civilization de- 
pend on it. 
2^^ Desire for knowledge. — This springs directly 
from the feeling excited by curiosity. Its 
stimulus must not be overlooked in the edu- 
cation of a child. 



OUTI.INKS OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 7 1 

3^*^ Desire for self-preservation. — It 
may be instinctive or voluntary. 
Needs no illustration. No prin- 
ciple in our beings is stronger 
than this one. 
4^ ^ Desire for power. — This desire is 
strong and natural, and should 
sometimes be curbed and some- 
times encouraged. 
5^^ Desires for liberty, happiness, 
esteem, and general worthiness. 
34 The Will. (2 4 Sensibility, i* Intellect.) 

i^ Def. — The soul's power to do, or to exert con- 
scious action toward some definite end. 
2^ Forms of activity. 

i^ Non-voluntary or reflex. — Does not include 
functions of the will as the term is ordinarily 
used, but functions of the doi?ig power of the 
soul nevertheless. All our random, reflex, 
and instinctive movements come under this 
head. 
2^ Voluntary, activity of the will proper, 
i^ Steps in the process. 

i^ Objects are presented to the mind, 
through, the sources of desire, motive, 
or sense-perception; the objects may 
be physical or mental. 
2^ Examination and anatysis. — The mind 
requires some time to perceive rela- 
tions before an act of the will is com- 
pleted. This step includes the excita- 
tion of a feelinof. 



72 OUTLINES OP PSYCHOLOGY. ' 

3^ Choice. — Desire prompts the possession of 
the object, while aversion prompts rejec- 
tion. Here perfect freedom of choice is 
exercised. 
4^ Executive volition. — The final act of the 
will, by which desires culminate into re- 
ality of possession. 
2'^ This voluntary activity alone subject to train- 
ing. 
35 floral training. 

i^ Depends upon the training of the will. 
2® Methods. 

i^ As knowledge tends to awaken feeling, it is 
all-important that right feelings be awakened. 
In some children these feelings may be dor- 
mant, but by skillful training the feelings may 
be awakened, then directed. 
2^ Stories effectively told, biographies beauti- 
fully expressed, some fairy tales judiciously 
told, all may tend to cultivate the moral na- 
ture. 
3^ Feelings may be ennobled by use of liter- 
ary gems, songs, and works of art. School- 
rooms should be adorned with suitable pic- 
tures. For outlines of lessons on " Moral 
Training" see Dr. E. E. White's ''School 
Management." 
4^ By example. — Moral instruction from mouth 
to ear will hardly reach the heart — it must 
come from the heart and the life of the 
teacher. (See " Qualifications of the Teacher '" 
in Outlines of Pedagogy, page 74.) 



OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGY. 73. 



OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGY. 

ii Definition.— See '' History of Education," following 

this outline. 
2^ Synonyms. — Science of Teaching, Paideutics, Sci- 
ence cf Education. 
3^ Basis of Pedagogy. — The one comprehensive end 
of pedagogy is to prepare man, a being of capaci- 
ties, susceptibilities, and possibilities, for the most 
complete fulfillment of the purposes for which he 
was created. 
4I Means of accomplishing these purposes. — Physical, 
Psychical, and Technical, or power, knowledge, and 
skill. 
5^ Kinds of education based on the means. 

1 2 Physical education. — The development and train- 
ing of the bodily powers. 
2^ Moral education. — The development and train- 
ing of the moral faculties, with a view of forming 
character. 
3 2 Intellectual education. — The development and 
training of the intellectual powers along the laws 
governing the processes in the acquisition of 
knowledge. 
61 The elements. — Knowledge, power, and skill. 
1 2 Knowledge as a result of teaching. 



74 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGY. 

i^ Original. — Obtained without the aid of a 
teacher, by observation and reflection, chiefly 
from nature. 
2^ Recorded. — Knowledge obtained from books, 

paintings, sculptures, newspapers, etc. 
3^ Tuitionary. — That obtained directly from the 
teacher. In each case the mind can receive 
knowledge only when it puts forth an inner 
energy. 
2 2 Power. 

i^ Inherent. — The capacity of the intellectual, 
moral, and physical natures to receive ability 
from without, or their capability for doing 
when called into activit3^ 
2^ Acquired. — These intellectual, moral, and 
physical powers developed into lines of activ- 
ity they would not have taken without tuition. 
3^ Skill, or educated and trained powder. 

I ^ School phase. — The trained power to practice 
the arts embraced in school instruction, such 
as writing, reading, singing, and use of lan- 
guage and numbers. See Parker's " Peda- 
gogics." 
2^ The technical phase. — Includes manual train- 
ing and the practice of power in the mechanic 
arts. 
71 Conditions of the application of principles to school 
government. 
1 2 Subjective. 
1 3 The teacher. 

i4 Thons qualifications. 

i^ Good scholarship. — Thons knowledge 
must be thorough, fresh, and progress- 
ive. 



OUTI^INES OF PEDAGOGY. * 75 

^^ A thorough knowledge of the human mind. — 
An}^ artisan would be foolish to undertake a 
work without knowing his material. A doctor 
might as properly administer to the sick without 
knowing the body, as the teacher without know- 
ing the mind. The time is rapidly approaching 
when teachers will be required to make special 
professional training for the great work of the 
teacher before they will be allowed to enter the 
profession. 

3^ A thorough knowledge of methods. — Although 
teachers must not blindly adopt the methods of 
others, yet in all professions and trades one must 
know what methods have been most successful in 
the hands of others. 

4^ Skill in government. — Executive abilit}^ and tact. 

,5^ Thoroughness of discipline. — Coming from a 
knowledge of human nature and of the end to 
be reached. 

6^ Must understand thons pupils personally. — Must 
know their wants — moral, intellectual, and phys- 
ical. 

7^ Heart power. — Thon must have love for thons 
pupils, and a kindness not feigned. 

8^ Self-control. — Thons control of thonself must be 
complete and thons motives always pure. 

9^ Positive morality. — Thons character should be 
above reproach, thons life pure, that thons exam- 
ple may be worthy. 
30^ Respect for the profession. — Not only a thorough 
scholar, but a lady or a gentleman of dignity, who 
has a strong desire for professional improvement, 
and to create a healthy sentiment for the profes- 
sion on the part of all intelligent people. 



76 • OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGY. 

2* Thons authority. 

I ^ Must possess a certificate. 
2^ Must be legally employed. 
3^ Must have the support of thons board of edu^ 

cation. 
4^ Must be vested with all the authority neces- 
sary to carry out every detail of school man- 
agement. 
5^ Must, though in the least conspicuous man- 
ner possible, let it be known that thon is in 
authority. 
2^ The pupils. 

1 4 Their rights. — To equal attention, equal confi- 
dence, equal immunities (unless privileges are 
abused), and equal personal rights. 
2* Their duties. — To themselves, to be cleanly and 
neat in attire ; to their teacher, to be kind, re- 
spectful, and obedient ; to each other, to keep 
the Golden Rule; to school property, a careful 
preservation; to the community, respectful. 
3* Their offenses. 

i^ Against themselves. — In tearing and soiling 
their books or clothing ; in idleness ; in bad 
manners ; in saying and doing immoral 
things. 
2^ Against the teacher. — In disobedience and 
disrespectful obedience; in slandering the 
teacher in conversation with schoolmates or 
others. 
3^ Against other pupils. — Encouraging them to 
do wrong; accusing them falsely; trying to 
create a sentiment of dislike upon the part of 



OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGY. 77 

their teacher or their schoolmates; injuring 
their books, clothing, or playthings. 

4^ Against the community. — Making a noise ; 
throwing stones ; molesting property ; disrespect 
and rudeness toward the public. 

5^ Against God. — Profane language; vulgar lan- 
guage and conduct ; scoffing at religion and re- 
ligious customs ; general immoral conduct. 
^* Their rewards. 

i^ The approbation of teachers, parents, and 
friends. 

2^ Promotion in school or in society. 

3^ Successful life resulting from discipline. 

4^ Present material gain, such as prizes and other 
gifts. 

5^ A feeling of satisfaction and pleasure at having 
done every duty assigned. 
3* Their punishment. 

i^ Deprivation of privileges in school, on the play- 
grounds, or private immunities. 

2^ Private or public reproof; teacher may some- 
times use sarcasm, but with care. 

.3^ Confinement, in schoolroom or solitary ; from 
privileges of school or play. 

-4^ Additional duties and repairing damages. 

.5^ Public and private acknowledgment of offense, 
with petition for pardon and for reinstatement in 
class and in the confidence of the teacher and 
school. 

^^ Corporal punishment, private or public, usually 
the former ; must accomplish purpose for which 
intended, or it wall be harmful. 



78 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGY. 

7^ Suspensions and expulsions. — Severe, but 
sometimes necessary. The claims of jus- 
tice and the good of the school and of 
society demand protection. 
22 Objective conditions — the environments, 
i^ The schoolroom. 

i^ It should be attractive and convenient. 
2^ It should be well heated and ventilated. 
3^ It should be adorned with pictures. 
4^* The light should enter from left and rear. 
5* It should not be overcrowded. 
2^ The furniture. 

I* Desks should be single, and of pattern de- 
signed on sanitary principles. 
2* Recitation seats should afford ample accom- 
modations. 
3* The teacher's desk should be provided with a 

waste-basket. 
4^ The blac^kboards, pencils, erasers, etc., should 

be the best, and always kept in order. 
5* Heating and ventilating appliances should be 
perfect, and kept in good order. A reliable 
thermometer and an accurate timepiece 
should be supplied to every schoolroom. 
3^ The apparatus. 

I* Should have a good globe. 
2* Good wall maps and special charts. 
3* Appliances for illustrating practical princi- 
ples of weight, measures, mensuration, etc. 
4* If grade of school is advanced, physical and 

chemical laboratories are essential. 
5* A good school library. — No teacher can fully 



OUTIylNKS OF PEDAGOGY. 79 

comprehend the disadvantages to which 
thons school is subject without a good li- 
brary, until teacher and school have had 
free and frequent access to one. Every 
school should have a library of carefully 
selected books. Teachers should encour- 
age the organization of school libraries. 
Boards of education may appropriate 
money annually for this purpose. Pupils 
can not be led to independent and thorough 
investigation without books. 
4^ An educational sentiment. 

i^ The community must appreciate the efforts 

of her earnest educators. 
2* The economy in public administration 
should not all be visited on the schools. 
3* Boards of education need to possess more 
than average intelligence. An institution 
as sacred as the public school needs to be 
in the hands of earnest, thoughtful, pro- 
gressive men or women. 
8^ Some Universal Principles. 

1 2 Formulated by Joseph Payne, I^ondon, Kng. 
1 3 First. — "Mind and body are mutually in- 
terdependent, and cooperate in promoting 
growth." 
2^ Second. — " Faculty of whatever kind grows 

by exercise." 
3^ Third — " Exercise involves repetition, which, 
as regards bodily actions, ends in habits of 
action, and as regards impressions received by 
the mind, ends in clearness of perception." 



^O OUTI^INKS OF PEDAGOGY. 

4^ Fourth. — " The exercise of the child's own pow- 
ers, stimulated but not superseded by the edu- 
cator's interference, ends both in acquisition of 
knowledge and in the invigoration of the powers 
for further acquisition." 

5^ Fifth. — '' Natural education consists in the de- 
velopment and training of the learner's powers, 
through influences of various kinds, which are 
initiated by action from without and met by cor- 
responding action from within." 
:22 Formulated by Dr. E. E. White in his Ped- 
agogy." 

i^ First. — " Teaching, both in matter and method, 
must be adapted to the capability of the taught." 

2^ Second. — "There is a natural order in which the 
powers of the mind should be exercised, and the 
corresponding kinds of knowledge taught." 

^3 ^hii-(^ — ''A true course of instruction for ele- 
mentary school cuts off a section of presentative, 
representative, and thought knowledge each 
year." 

4^ Fourth. — " Knowledge can be taught only by oc- 
casioning the appropriate activity of the learner's 
mind." 

5^ Fifth. — " The primary concepts and ideas in 
every branch of knowledge must be taught ob- 
jectively in all grades of school." 

6^ Sixth. — *' The several powers of the mind are de- 
veloped and trained by occasioning their natural 
and harmonious activity." 

7^ Seventh. — " In the teaching of any school art, 
clear and correct ideals should inspire and guide 
practice." 



OUTLINES OF METHODOLOGY. 



OUTLINES OF METHODOLOGY, 

Definition. — That division of the science of educa- 
tion that treats of the principles of teaching as 
appHed to schoolroom practice. 
Kxtent. — Methodology belongs to both the science 
of teaching and the art of teaching. See " lyaurie's 
Institutes of Education." 
Universal Principles of Instruction. 
I " Make instruction practical, and find some good 
in everything. 

i^ Call for the reproduction of ever3^thing j^ou 
teach and a practical application to the wants 
of a successful life. 
2^ Proceed from the known to the unknown by 
making everything known useful in obtaining 
new knowledge. 
2 2 Follow the natural order of development of the 
faculties, as laid down in the subject of Psychol- 
ogy. 
3 2 Cultivate sense-perception in every lesson. — If 
the thing taught can not be presented to the 
senses directly, then you should use represent- 
ative knowledge, and appeal to memory and 
imagination. If the subject be still more ab- 
stract, judgment and reason must aid conception 
in formulating correct ideas. 



82 OUTLINES OF METHODOLOGY. 

4^ The true secret in the acquisition of knowledge 
is the self-activity of the pupil ; hence, teach to 
do b}' having the pupil do. 
5 2 Teach one thing at a time, and that v^ell. Never 
leave one subject for another until the pupil un- 
derstands the first. 
6 2 Practice your pupils in the analysis ol complex 
things and in the synthesis of individual things 
into wholes. Kspecially applicable in language 
and mathematics. 
7^ Have your pupils understand distinctly what 
you wish them to do; they can do best what 
they see and hear j/^z^ do. Be careful lest you 
do too much. Do not be overzealous. 
8 2 Cultivate the imagination by frequent practice 

in composition, etc. 
9^ Cultivate the memory by applying the laws of 
association and by practice. 
41 riethods in study. 
1 2 Objects. 

i^ For discipline. — It develops and quickens all 
the intellectual activities, trains the sensibili- 
ties, and refines the affections. 
2^ For the acquisition of knowledge. — Stores the 
mind with facts and classifies them ; increases 
the power to think and investigate ; gives us 
an intellectual capital. Banks may fail, houses 
may burn, winds may destroy, friends may 
deceive, but an educational capital can not be 
touched by these. 
3^ For professional purposes. — We are thus pre- 
pared for our professions; it improves our 



OUTLINES OF MKTHODOI.OGY. 85 

chances for success ; helps us to originate and 
discover. 
22 Incentives. 

i^ The benevolent desire. — To please parents, 
teachers, or friends ; to do good and secure 
happiness ; to perfect our knowledge and de- 
velop the soul. 

2^ The selfish desire. — To outrank others; to 
receive the praise of others ; to increase our 
wealth; to make labor easier. 

3 3 The involuntary incentives. — Pleasing stories ; 
fascinating developments or discoveries ; arti- 
ficial stimulation through the senses. 
32 flanner. 

I ^ A clearly-defined purpose urges the will. 

2^ Attention, perception, and conception must 
be awake. 

3^ Investigations by analysis, induction, and de- 
duction should be made. 

4^ Students should note facts learned, and store 
them away analytically ; i. e., place them upon 
the proper " shelf " of the mind, properly la- 
beled. 

5^ Should study to know, not to recite. 
The recitation. 
1 2 Objects. 

i^ To ascertain extent of pupil's preparation. 

2^ To have pupils reproduce, express their 
knowledge. 

3^ To ascertain how well the pupil comprehends. 

4^ To correct wrong impressions formed in 
study. 



84 OUTI^INES OF METHODOLOGY. 

5^ To repeat and fix knowledge in the mind. 

6^ To enable the teacher to supply the deficiencies 
in the student s mind by giving thon further di- 
rections. 

7^ To cultivate power of expression and to quicken 
the pupil's perception by immediate contact with 
other minds. 
22 Mode of conducting. 

i^ Depends much upon the branch of study, age of 
pupil, number in class. 

2^ By questions propounded in consecutive order, 
to the entire class, or promiscuously ; generally 
the last. 

3^ By "Socratic Method"; see ''Socrates." 

4^ Seldom use " leading " questions, or questions 
that suggest the answer. Timid pupils should 
sometimes be encouraged by this method. 

5^ By topical outlines, blackboard drills, etc. 

6^ By topical recitation by pupil. 

7^ By requiring answers in complete sentences. 

8^ Sometimes by essays, lectures, illustrative les- 
sons, experiments, etc. 

9^ No answer should be allowed to pass if not ex- 
actly correct and logical, 
lo^ Skill in conducting recitations reveals the teach- 
er's power as an instructor. 



THK HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 85 



THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 

Pedagogy. — The theory or science of education, 
which embraces an inquiry into the principles upon 
which the art of teaching is based, and inquires into 
the vahdity of methods when applied to the laws of 
mental growth. 

Didactics. — The practical application of the princi- 
ples of pedagogy and psychology to the wants of the 
growing mind, in helping it to obtain the best food in 
the best way and at the best time ; in short, the art, or 
practice, of education. 

Teaching a profession. — Is it ? Education is looked 
upon by many people as expensive. For this reason 
cheap (?) teachers are often employed in country dis- 
tricts and in primary grades. They are unqualified 
professionally, hence fail. By their failures they cast a 
cloud of disrepute over the profession, which subjects 
even professional teachers to a want of confidence 
from patrons. As a result, they are placed on a level 
with those who are only seeking a pittance for a liveli- 
hood, and their salaries are weighed in the same bal- 
ance. These conditions, and the insecure tenure of 
teachers, are largely the results of professional ignor- 
ance. 

What is Education? — It is the development and 
training of the learner's whole nature by means of the 
conscious and persistent energy and influence of the 



86 THK HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 

instructor. Much of our education, however, comes 
from the unconscious tuition of nature, individuals, 
and institutions. 

History of Education. — A complete history of ed- 
ucation would be coextensive wdth the history of the 
development of the human race. Civilization is the 
direct product of education. The history of education 
sets forth the influences that have moulded the human 
race, and records the cause and effect of every step of 
advance or retreat in human progress. It is the true 
basis of all history. 

Its Importance. — Every educator should study ed- 
ucational history. It is too generally neglected, even 
by professional teachers. It inspires every educational 
worker with greater zeal and professional enthusiasm 
by citing thon to the examples and methods of the 
world's most renowned educators. 

China and Japan. — Although we find little of im- 
portance outside the history of the Caucasian race, 
and, outside of Greece and Rome, little of ancient his- 
tory bearing on the history of education, yet a few 
nations should be studied. In the Chinese we find the 
opposite of our educational aims most clearly crystal- 
lized. Kong, whose name was lyatinized into Con- 
fucius, and who lived about 500 B. C, declared that 
man's destiny and whole duty was to perfect himself 
In China all deviation from the customs of tradition is 
looked upon with disfavor, so that their system is 
adapted to perpetuate an exclusive national existence. 
Recent developments prove the Japanese to be a much 
more progressive people. Many English and Amer- 
ican works are translated for use in their schools. 



THK HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 87 

Persia. — Zoroaster, who lived in the sixteenth cen- 
tury B. C, discovered the dualism in all nature — the 
right and the wrong — and conceived of two coexistent 
spiritual beings, Ormuzd at the head of the kingdom 
of light, and Ahriman at the head of the kingdom of 
darkness. His doctrine did much to moralize Persia. 
The Magi w^ere the learned class. It is said that 
much of the learning of Pj^thagoras was borrowed 
from them. 

Egypt. — Here, perhaps, is the oldest civilization of 
the world. She made her highest attainment in the 
mechanic arts. Psammetichus introduced the Greek 
and Phoenician elements into Egyptian civilization. 

Greece. — Homer tells us that during the Heroic 
Age, prior to iioo B. C, education was chiefly patri- 
archal. With the Dorian Migration family life gave 
w^ay to state life, hence state education. Dorian, or 
Spartan, culture made physical strength and warlike 
skill the objective points in order to maintain the per- 
petuation of the ruling class. 

Lycurgus. — Also a Dorian, who lived about 850 
B. C. His laws were very stringent. Children be- 
longed to the state. Boys, if strong, w^ere educated by 
the state; if weakly, they were destroyed. Girls were 
left in the parental home. 

Solon. — Ionian culture was based on the laws of 
Solon, born 639 B. C. He favored intellectual pur- 
suits, forbade the sale of girls, and required boys to 
learn some pursuit. Parents who failed to educate 
their boys had no claims to the support of their sons 
in old age. 

Pythagoras. — 582-500 B. C. Although not a Do- 



55 the: history of kducation. 

rian, he was the greatest exponent of Dorian civiliza- 
tion. Thales was his teacher. He estabhshed a school 
at Croton, southern Italy, where he taught music,, 
physics, mathematics, geography, and metaphysics by 
means of lectures delivered in short, condensed sen- 
tences (laconism). He was the first to raise mathe- 
matics to a science, and united geometry with arith- 
metic. ~ The great theorem of the right-angled triangle 
is his. 

Socrates. — Born at Athens, 469 B. C. Began life as 
a sculptor. Became a student of philosophy, and a 
teacher of youth and men in search of knowledge- 
Taught in the streets by questioning all who would 
listen to him concerning their notions of morality. He 
gave the impression that he was asking questions for 
his own information. His fondness for this method of 
teaching has made it known as the "Socratic Method."" 
His stern morality offended the corrupt party in power,, 
and he was condemned to die by drinking hemlock^ 
400 B. C. He left no writings, but his teachings are 
found in Xenophon's "Memorabilia" and in the dia- 
logues of Plato, both his pupils. 

Plato. — 429-347 B. C. He comprehended Socrates 
fully. His philosophy, known as the Academic, be- 
cause he taught in the grove of Academus, is that of 
idealism. He taught that the soul consists of three 
parts : (i) The appetite, wild, capable of being tamed ; 
(2) The spirit, which may work in lines of good or 
evil; (3) The philosophic element. He taught that 
education is the privilege and duty of the state, and 
that education is the noblest and most important of 
all callings. He wrote "Republic," describing an ideal 
state. 



THK HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 8? 

Aristotle.— Greek, 384-322 B. C, was the most noted 
pupil of Plato. At 47 lie became Alexander's tutor. 
At 50 he established his school known as the Lyceum. 
He lectured while walking about, hence his school of 
philosophy became known as the Peripatetic (to walk 
around). He wrote a number of books on various- 
sciences. He held that man should be trained by the 
state. On a charge of atheism he fled from Athens 
the year of his death. 

Ro^ie. — Numa Pompilius was the first Roman wor- 
th}^ the name of educator. Varro and Cicero wrote on 
educational subjects prior to the Christian era. Cicero 
taught that teachers should be just; that punishment 
should be resorted to only in extreme cases ; that the 
pupil should be made to feel that correction was ad- 
ministered only with the desire to make thon better, 
and should never be administered in anger ; that mem- 
ory should be cultivated; that moral culture should be 
encouraged. 

Dawn of Christian Era. — Seneca was the first 
Roman writer on education belonging to the Christian 
era. Quintilian thought that weak-minded children, 
and children that can not learn, are very few. The 
Romans do not furnish us with systems of education, 
but from them we receive many practical suggestions- 
in accordance witli common sense and the correct 
principles of humanity. But the birth of Christ, four 
years before the beginning of the Christian era,, 
brought about a new religion, and with it a new civili- 
zation based on pure humanity. This new religion 
taught that stagnation is death and progress is life, 
and that the greatest is the one who does most to- 
elevate humanity. 



90 THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 

The riiddle Ages. — We hear but little more of edu- 
cation until the i6th century. The early Christians 
took great interest in the education of their children. 
Their system sacrificed the intellectual to the moral 
element of our nature. But for a thousand years prior 
to the 15th century education was housed in cloisters, 
books were chained to their owners' desks, and educa- 
tion was possessed by the few. The tendency of the 
education w^as to spurn the present world in the inter- 
est of the world to come ; to foster asceticism, celibacy, 
transcendentalism, monasticism. Did space permit, 
an account of the secular education of the 400 years 
of the Middle Ages and of the knightly education 
would be given here. The student should study the 
history of institutions of the Middle Ages. 

The Reformation, — Instituted by Martin Luther, 
1 483-1 546. Although Luther could not devote him- 
self exclusively nor directly to the cause, yet his ef- 
forts were not fruitless in Protestant Germany. The 
churches took up the establishment of popular instruc- 
tion, and he thus became the greatest educational re- 
former of his century. 

Philip flelancthon — 1497-1560, is known as the 
^' Preceptor of Germany." He knew Luther, from 
whom he drew energy. He was noted for his discre- 
tion, mildness, sympathy, and love for children. He 
has the distinction of having written the first Protes- 
tant work on dogmatic theology. His passion found 
greatest expression in literature. He divided the 
schools into grades, very much as they are now. He 
believed in teaching but one language, and in much 
practice in grammar. 



THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 9 1 

John Sturm. — 1507-1589, a Prussian by nativity, a 
Oerman by nationality. He organized the gymnasium 
at Strasburg, which numbered several thousand stu- 
dents before his death. His was the first systematic 
organization of the schools. His course of study was 
extensive yet systematic; suitable, and sensible. He 
is the father of system in instruction. He formulated 
the algebraic theorem that bears his name. It will be 
noticed that lyUther instituted an inquiry into the 
■moral status of the times, Melancthon an inquiry into 
the intellectual, and Sturm into the physical. The 
•work of these and other educators of their day laid the 
:groundwork upon which Bacon, Comenius, and Locke 
made their pleas. Since then the general tendency 
has been to develop the being symmetrically along the 
lines of our threefold nature : the moral, the intellect- 
ual, and the physical. 

Lord Bacon. — Born in London, 1561, died 1626. 
"Was eloquent and learned. His official career was 
•disgraceful, his morals reprehensible. But he freed 
mankind from scholastic word-wisdom, and taught that 
scientific life consists of independent investigation, 
discovery, and invention. The student must rise from 
the phenomena to the law, from facts to accurate con- 
ceptions. 

John Amos Comenius — 1592-1671, a Moravian. 
Was a minister; was banished by Frederick II. in 
1624, and fled to Poland, where he devoted his time to 
education. He did much for simplifying Latin. He 
wrote "Orbis Pictus," or the Visible World, in which 
he expressed more rational views on education than 
then prevailed. He asked for airy and light school- 



92 THK HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 

rooms, and for plenty of playground as essential to> 
every well-regulated school. He urged the necessity 
of a harmonious development of the entire human- 
being. He did much to modernize instruction. 

Wolfgang Ratich.— Born at Wilster, in Holstein, in 
157 1. He taught that the young should learn to read, 
write, and speak their mother-tongue correctly before 
taking up the study of other languages. To him we 
owe the much-talked-of and somewhat-abused method 
of teaching the " A B C's." He taught the letters first, 
by drawing them slowly in full view of the pupil, 
noting the form, name, and similarity and contrast of 
the letters. Without much delay he proceeded to 
teach reading. He would first read the lesson three 
times for the pupil, then allow the pupil to read it 
slowly. " Teach one thing at a time," he said. "Noth- 
ing should be learned by rote," j^et his method tended 
to induce rote-learning. He was himself a failure as a 
teacher. 

John Locke. — 1 632-1 704, English philosopher. He 
said it is education that makes the great difference of 
mankind. He set little store by mere book-learning. 
He said that education consists of virtue, wisdom, 
good breeding, and learning, of which he thought 
learning the least' part. He strenuously objected to 
the use of the rod. He condemned committing to 
memory when the subject was not fully compre- 
hended. 

Jean Jacques Rosseau. — 171 2-1778, a Swiss edu- 
cator of extreme views. His chief maxim was, " Take 
the road leading directly opposite to the one in use,, 
and you w411 almost always go right." But few re- 



THK HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 93 

formers have exerted a greater influence upon educa- 
tion. His greatest work is " Kmile, or Concerning 
^Education." It needs to be read with great discrimi- 
Tiation, yet every teacher should read it. He believed 
in the cultivation of sense-perception, and in the devel- 
opment of the complete man. 

Augustus Herman Francke. — 1663- 1727, a Ger- 
man educational reformer. His great love for children, 
and his desire to do something to improve the schools, 
led him into his life's work. He founded a school for 
poor boys and girls, an orphan asylum, a Latin school, 
a teachers' seminary, and a free boarding-school. At 
the time of his death 10,000 teachers had instructed 
in his schools, and 250,000 boys and girls and teachers 
liad been taught in them. He was one of the first who 
saw how much the teacher needed professional train- 
ing. He became virtually the founder of the scientific 
schools of Germany. 

Johann Bernhard Basedow. — Born at Hamburg, 
1723; died in 1790. He was the founder of the phil- 
:anthropinists, whose motto was "everything accord- 
ing to nature." To some extent he followed Comenius. 
^' By all means reduce the wretched exercises of the 
jnemory," he said. " Faith in God should first be in- 
culcated, lyittle memorizing should be done. Pupils 
:should not be forced to study, not even by reproof A 
culture of sound reason must come through a truly 
philosophical mode of thinking." 

John Henry Pestalozzi. — 1 746-1 827, a Swiss edu- 
cator, the founder of '* object teaching," and the most 
celebrated of educational reformers. He made a strong 
plea for the cultivation of sense-perception. In j^outh 



94 I'HK HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 

he was awkward and the butt of fun for his pla^anates. 
His feelings were remarkably strong; he was inju- 
dicious, and to-day would be considered a poor in- 
structor. He made failures, both financial and educa- 
tional. Yet he possessed the true educational princi- 
ples which have since been verified by others. His 
principles are still at work, permeating and changing 
modern education into a realization of the " New Edu- 
cation." His chief work is "Leonard and Gertrude." 

Johann Frederick Herbart. — A German philoso- 
pher, 1776-1841, produced a system of philosophy alto- 
gether unlike that which then prevailed. To him we 
owe our ideas of apperception, the recognizing and in- 
terpreting faculty of perception. He was Krug's suc- 
cessor at the University of Konigsburg, and was suc- 
ceeded by Karl Rosenkranz, also eminent in pedagog- 
ical psychology. Pestalozzi based much on sense-per- 
ception, while Herbart went farther and sought to 
know how sense-perception could be made the most 
useful. 

Frederick Froebel. — i782-i852,a German educator, 
the founder of the Kindergarten. He got from Pes- 
talozzi the idea of genuine human development, and 
had a keener insight and a better discipline with which 
to apply it. His great work is '' The Education of 
Man." He converted everything that goes by the 
name of play into instruments for his purpose, and 
readily transformed play into work. His idea has 
worked wonders in our system of education, and is 
gaining ground rapidly. 

The Outlook. — Every decade makes great changes 
in the educational outlook on the future. Everywhere 



THK HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 95 

methods are becoming objective and observational 
Teaching that does not seek the standpoint of normal 
or natural methods fitted to the pupil's experience and 
nature can not be successful. Everywhere we are rec- 
ognizing the fact that the lack of interest on the part 
of pupils is due very largely to the ignorance or neg- 
lect of the teacher in applying the great principles of 
mind-growth to the child under tuition. Proper men- 
tal activity is not a phenomenon of chance. (See 
"The New Pedagogics," following this chapter.) 
Whatever the diversity of views to-day regarding the 
purposes of teaching arises from a diversity of views 
concerning the purposes of life itself The true aim 
in education is based on the nature and purpose of 
life. We are now seeking knowledge and discipline 
for the sake of the soul itself, that its advancement 
may be toward a realization of the ideal manhood and 
womanhood. 



96 TH^ n:^w pe;dagogics. 



THE NEW PEDAGOGICS. 

There is a philosophy of teaching, based upon the 
nature of the results to be secured. Founded upon 
this philosophy, which is natural in every respect, is 
the science of pedagogics. But the great mass of 
teachers have not yet recognized the claims of this sci- 
ence. There are still too many teachers who seem to 
think their mission is to "keep the children under," 
and to cram their minds with 3. certain amount of edu- 
cational pabulum which is to be phonographed out 
again and measured by the tape-line of examinations 
and percents. The activities of the child are too often 
^suppressed. 

The old theories, if former practices were based on 
theories at all, are now pretty generally exploded. 
The new pedagogics recognizes the nature of the 
child. It studies and everywhere recognizes the laws 
of nature as ever logical and unchan gable. Such a 
wonderful manifestation of activity as the human mind 
must grow and develop according to laws implanted 
in our psychical natures. The new pedagogics seeks 
to know these laws and discover the phenomena upon 
which their formal expression is based. Because it is 
the method of nature, it gets possession of the child and 
wins thon to the teacher by methods that thons nature 
can not resist. It makes thon observant. It trains 



th:e: new pedagogics. 97 

thons apperception. It stimulates thons moral sense 
and trains thons reason. It offers the least resistance to 
thons individual progress. If, under the calcium light 
of truth, it discovers old theories to be illogical we must 
not build longer on the old foundation. It is easier 
and infinitely better to unmask old dogmas and erase 
what men have written than to turn the tide of human 
life from its natural channel. The great fraternity of 
teachers must think upon the movement of the dead 
•centuries toward a higher life. 

I here formulate a few propositions, the solutions of 
ivhich the new pedagogics is working out. 

There is a science of pedagogics. — Science is sim- 
ply the classified related facts evolved from the ob- 
servation of connected phenomena. No want or de- 
sire of the human soul antedates the desire to know. 
In the history of the race, curiosity has ever been the 
antecedent of investigation. All down through the 
'Centuries we have had the phenomena of mental activ- 
ities. These phenomena demonstrate that the activ- 
ities of the soul are always manifested through defi- 
nite, fixed grooves, which are discovered to be natural 
and logical, hence scientific. The activities of the 
mind are not without limit, either in extent or in con- 
tent. But the mind behaves as though it were a func- 
tion of a higher activity, the soul, which we have rea- 
son to believe is without limit, infinite in extent and 
infinite in content, because immortal, for we could not 
conceive of an immortal soul without activity and en- 
ergy, and activity through infinity {i. e., eternity) could 
not produce stagnation or maintain sameness of de- 
velopment. Hence the soul as soul must be capable 



98 THE NEW PEDAGOGICS. 

of indefinite improvement. The mind is not capable 
of indefinite improvement. The limitation of life 
alone renders the improvement of the mind finite. It 
is the purpose of teaching to encourage and direct this 
development. The goal reached by the mind in its 
achievements depends upon the direction and extent 
of the formative influences. It is the supreme pur- 
pose of teaching to see that the proper educative influ- 
ences are supplied. So great and so worthy an end 
can not be attained by aimless, lawless, or illogical 
methods. As the mind develops along the lines of 
natural and immutable laws, it follows that it can not 
be properly trained without an adherence to those 
laws. In order to follow these supreme dictates in in- 
struction, they must be known to the instructor. If 
so related and so complete as to form the basis of a 
perfect theory, they must constitute a science of peda- 
gogics. Just in proportion to the adherence of teach- 
ers to these great principles through the ages have 
teachers been successful in training the mind. What- 
ever success any of us may have had in the profession 
is directly attributable to the application of these prin- 
ciples, though it may have been done in ignorance of 
them. Colonel Parker says very few teachers have 
yet recognized (re-cognized) them in teaching. Super- 
intendent Draper says the large army of teachers are 
already recognizing them. Professor Payne says: 
" Education can never take its proper place among the 
learned professions until teachers see that there are 
really principles of education, and that it is their 
duty to study them." 

Fellow teachers of America, should our profession 



THE NEW PEDAGOGICS. 99 

be denominated a learned profession so long as we in- 
sist by practice that it is not founded on incontroverti- 
ble science ? Can we go into our several schoolrooms, 
teach by individual, untried, unscientific methods, 
without inquiring into the nature of the soul to be 
trained, and the consequent means alone by which 
that end shall be attained ? Teachers who fail to rec- 
ognize that the advanced age of thought demands that 
teaching shall bear the test of reasonable, scientific in- 
vestigation will soon find themselves in the rear of 
t^ throng, without a job. 
ly/ The science of pedagogics must insist that only 
/^ natural methods be employed and that reasonable, con- 
sistent ends be sought. — The laws of activity upon 
which man's nature feeds are only an integral part of 
the great laws of the universe, which can not be con- 
troverted. Remove one law from the force of gravita- 
tion and the universe is a wreck of matter. Disregard 
one law in the evolution of the soul and you will have 
a dwarfed, imperfect soul, unable to fill the complete 
design of the Creator. All methods used in develop- 
ing the soul must regard the nature of the thing de- 
veloped. No one w^ould attempt to train a horse for 
the turf without first knowing something of the animal 
to be trained and the end to be secured by that train- 
ing. We must for the same reason first learn the na- 
ture and activities of the soul. The very first principle 
in education is a due consideration of the nature of 
the being to be educated. This is often ignored. The 
new pedagogics does not ignore it. Education can 
never be mechanical, and every attempt to reduce it 
to mechanism must inevitably fail. The mind is not 



loo the: nbw pedagogics. 

like a mill-hopper, designed for all kinds of feed in un- 
varying quantity. Although each mind operates by 
unvarying law, differing activities predominate in each 
mind. The presence of the living teacher, inspired 
with the zeal born of a knowledge of the truth, is nec- 
essary to insure that each activity is properly regarded, 
and that each step is firmly taken, modifying his guid- 
ance to meet the demands of the individual pupil. 
Teachers must see that their methods are natural, both 
to themselves and to the activity of the child mind. 
To be able to do this their conceptions of life and duty 
must be right, then they will seek proper ends. *' The 
conviction is more and more being born into men's 
souls that all development comes through obedience 
to fixed, eternal, and loving laws." " How can a 
teacher," says some writer, "look at heaven through a 
child's soul without catching glimpses of the supreme 
glory of eternal laws ? " How can a teacher fail to be 
impressed with the supreme dignity of his work and 
mission? How can a teacher be so blinded to the 
truth as to have paragraphs committed simply to be 
repeated, then forgotten because never known? How 
can a teacher be satisfied with mere lesson-hearing 
from day to day, with having pupils recite for a mark 
or a promotion rather than for growth and develop- 
ment, when a knowledge of mind activity teaches us 
that the thinking powers, the whole intellectuality of 
our pupils, are lamed and crippled, and their best en- 
ergies are wasted by such criminal teaching? The 
sole motive of the teacher should be to assist each 
pupil to put forth thons highest efforts in the training 
of the whole being. The teacher should accept nothing 



THK NE:w PEDxlGOGICS. lOI 

short of the pupil's best efforts. This is the reasonable, 
consistent end to be sought by the teacher in every 
lesson. This done, a well-rounded character will be 
the result. 

The Expressional Activities. — The new pedagogics 
is demanding and enforcing a complete revision in the 
current ideas of the value and sequence of studies. — 
In the days of our forefathers a knowledge of the 
three R's was thought a liberal education. lyong ago 
the three-R business was exploded. I am not so cer- 
tain that the curriculum that took its place is not to 
be greatly revised. We are learning to know more of 
the child from the standpoint of nature. We are fast 
learning to look upon the child as a being whose de- 
velopment should be directed with the high purpose 
of the Being who planted those natures, constantly in 
view. The idea formerly held concerning the child 
was, that its tendencies were all wrong, that it was 
naturally predisposed to evil, and that teaching was 
to suppress the risibilities of the child. Now we are 
beginning to believe the child's activities naturally 
right, and the great question with us is to know how 
to direct them and develop them. 

All life has an ultimate purpose. — It is now con- 
sidered the province, the function, of the school to 
train for complete living. In man's activities there 
are three processes in the growth of the mind : First 
is the acquisitional, or presentative. Just in propor- 
tion to our exercise of this activity, or process, will be 
our fund of knowledge of the non-Ego, or not-self 
world. Second, we have the reflectional, or thought- 
evolving activities. In this exercise we get the rela- 



I02 THE NKW PEDAGOGICS. 

tion of the facts presented by the acquisitional. This 
power to correlate facts is apperception. Third, we 
have the expressional, or representative activities, by 
whose exercise we express by language or by art facts 
or concepts as gathered by the acquisitional and corre- 
lated by the refiectional. These activities education 
must seek to train and develop. The expressional is 
manifestly impossible without the other two. The 
refiectional is impossible without the acquisitional. We 
must seek to train the mind to receive knowledge 
through sense-perception. First studies must be se- 
lected with this aim in view. The new pedagogics be- 
lieves that in the earl}^ formative, receptive period of 
childhood the senses must be trained, and along with 
the training of the senses goes the cultivation of the 
imagination. The old theory, if theory it may be 
called, was that the child could not exercise its refiec- 
tional activities, but that this exercise was left to more 
mature years. To that end we taught mechanically. 
We see-sawed the multiplication table off in blocks. 
But any one who teaches in that way now is out of 
touch with the true pedagogical principles of mental 
growth. However, I think one of the greatest peda- 
gogical blunders has been made by an almost complete 
neglect of the expressional activities. A man's knowl- 
edge is of but little use if of no use to any one but 
himself. Besides, knowledge is of but little use to 
one's self if unexpressed. The new pedagogics seeks 
to have the ex:pressional activities cultivated. For this 
purpos I we have language in every grade of school 
work; we have numbers, drawing, music, mechanic 
arts, sloyd, manual training, all of which seek to train 
the expressional. 



THE NKW PEDAGOGICS. I03 

The Importance of Psychology. — A teacher can 
not direct and guide the training of the mind unless 
thon knows mind by a study of psychology and the 
history of education. These form the true foundation 
of pedagogics. The true teacher is a constant student 
of educational history. Thon will thus escape many 
impositions. Thon has the decisions of the past to 
counsel, and is enabled to profit by the mistakes of 
others, and adopt and adapt their pedagogical suc- 
cesses to thons needs. There are, I am inclined to be- 
lieve, still a few teachers who do not do this, but close 
their eyes and ears against even the most decided im- 
provements in education, and are satisfied with them- 
selves. If they would but look into the record of their 
profession, and especially into the chapters they make 
themvSelves, their conceit would soon be broken down. 
To-day there is no movement in progress in education 
w^hich is more rapid and more forceful than that 
towards the professional training of the teacher. 
Teachers to-day must meet larger exactions than 
formerly. Still more will be required of teachers 
to-morrow. Those who do not catch the spirit must 
go upon the retired list. 



I04 HOW TO OBSERVE CHILDREN. 



HOW TO OBSERVE CHILDREN. 

ChiId=Study is not a fad — it has come to stay. 
Teachers are earnestly asking, How shall I study my 
children ? How may I profit most by careful observa- 
tion of the children under my charge? This desire 
for light will continue until teachers generally, if not 
universally, will 

" Count that day lost whose low, descending sun 
" Views from their eyes no observation done," 

and will base their methods of teaching on the undeni- 
able principles of applied psychology as verified by 
their observation of the activities of the child-mind. 
Pres. G. Stanley Hall says: ''The living, playing, 
learning child, whose soul heridity has freighted so- 
richly from a past we know not how remote, on whose 
right development all good causes in the world de- 
pend, embodies a truly elementary psychology. All 
the fundamental activities are found, and the play of 
each psychic process is so open, simple, and interest- 
ing that it is strange that psychology vshould be the 
last of the sciences to fall into line in the great Baco- 
nian change of base to which we owe nearly all the re- 
forms from Comenius down, which distinguish schools- 
of today from those of the sixteenth century. It is a 
Striking fact that nearly every great teacher in the his- 
tory of education who has spoken words that have 



HOYV^ TO OBSERVK CHILDREN. 1 05; 

been heeded has lived for years in the closest personal 
relations to children, and has had the sympathy and 
tact that gropes out, if it can not see clearly, the laws 
of juvenile development." 

It is a matter of great importance that teachers 
should possess the tact and skill necessary in reading 
the minds of children. The activities of a child's soul 
find expression in many ways, and it is the first duty 
of the teacher to study these modes of expression. 
Skillful teaching consists in properly applying the 
means of discipline and culture to each individual 
under tuition. If the teacher fail in the application of 
the means the end sought will not be attained. To 
avoid such mistakes the successful teacher studies the 
content of the child-mind. It is one of Herbart's prin- 
ciples that it is the individual and not the mass that is 
to be instructed, hence the individual must be studied. 

There are several methods of child-study, each of 
which has its merits. In several colleges the work in 
psychological laboratories is growing. Mechanical 
contrivances are used to determine the nature and 
extent of the child's activities in emotional, intellectual, 
volitional, and physical life, with a degree of exactness 
that places the laboratory method above the criticisms 
that may be attached to methods of mere observation. 
What usually goes by the term "a study of human, 
nature " is in the main aimless, hence fruitless. The 
observer must know why thon observes. Thons ob- 
servation must be directed with the purpose of secur- 
ing definite results, from which essential didactic con- 
clusions may be drawn. In this way the type of the 
normal child may be determined, provided the obser- 



Io6 HOW TO OBSKRVK CHII^DRKN. 

vations cover a sufficient period of time and a sufficient 
number of cases. The teacher is also able to see 
wherein certain children depart from the normal tj^pe. 

But teachers can not follow the laboratory method. 
They must, however, have some definite plan of obser- 
v^ation, that will lead to a logical classification of results. 

The Teacher's Preparation. — The teacher's great 
work is to lead out and guide the child's activities. 
This can not be done until the teacher gets into true 
sympathy with the child. Kach period of life is char- 
acterized by a distinctive emotional and intellectual 
activity. We must get into our thoughts and feelings 
as much of the actual thoughts and feelings of the 
child as possible before we can properly understand 
the child. Human life is made up of a series of re- 
lated selfs, and each being may be called a ladder of 
as many rounds as there have been successive stages 
in our growth. Bach round is a distinct self. In 
order that, two beings may completely communicate 
with each other they must adjust themselves to a 
common level. One or the other must generally 
come down a few rounds to be on recognizable 
grounds with the other. This is just what the teacher 
must do in order to look at childhood from child- 
hood's standpoint. 

Child=Study, or Paidology, not General. — Cer- 
tainly every true teacher studies thons pupils, but 
usually only by those means that native tact or intui- 
tion may suggest. But more definite or more scien- 
tific means must be employed in order that the char- 
acteristics and laws of mental habits of children may 
be fully appreciated. We must seek the thoughts 



HOW TO OBSKRVK CHII.DRKN. 107 

and feelings of children, and then seek to appreciate 
them. This we may do by observing their uncon- 
scious as well as their conscious expressions, and by 
asking questions, hereinafter classified, concerning their 
physical, intellectual, and emotional life. 

The value of casual observation on the part of the 
teacher can not be doubted, but if a systematic method 
were followed results much more satisfactory would 
be obtained. To assist those who are anxious to 
systematize their observation of children I have for- 
mulated a working outline, as follows : 

Biography. — Record the pupil's name, date, and 
place of birth ; names and nationality of parents ; oc- 
cupation of father; general description of the father's 
disposition, if known ; disposition of the mother ; how 
many brothers and sisters; is the child under study 
the youngest or the oldest? What do you know of 
thons home life? Are the parents educated? Are 
there many books in the home ? Any music ? Are 
home games encouraged ? Is the father a companion 
to his children ? Is the mother companionable ? How 
•does the child show the marks of these characteristics ? 
Which parent does the child resemble most in appear- 
ance and characteristics ? What of the morals of the 
parents? Are the parents Puritanic in their govern- 
ment ? Who are the child's companions ? How much 
of thons life has been spent in the country ? In the 
city? Any other facts concerning the life and envi- 
ronment of the child. Details are more essential than 
they at first appear. 

Health. — What is the child's general state of health? 
Has any time from school duties been lost by ill 



I08 HOW TO OBSERVE) CHII^DRBN. 

health ? If so, at what age and stage of advancement? 
Ever mentally overworked? Has confinement to the 
schoolroom always been congenial? Any defects in 
chest or spine? Any defects in eye or ear? Any 
trace of heart trouble? Subject to fainting? Ea^.^y 
frightened? Nearsighted? If so, does the parent 
realize it to be a serious matter? Have you advised 
to have the eyes examined ? Does the health fluctu- 
ate ? Have you conferred with the parents about all 
the bodily defects observed? 

Physical Features. — Abnormally large or small? 
Head normal in size and shape? Is the carriage of 
head erect ? The forehead broad, narrow, or flat, reced- 
ing or straight? Ears large and projecting, or small 
and close-fitting ? Eyes deep-set or projecting ? Cheeks 
round or angular? Nose large or small? Nostrils^ 
open or close ? Is them outh strait or curved ? I<ips 
large or small ? Thick or thin ? Chin large or small ? 
Dimpled, round, or pointed? Is the expression of the 
face amiable, hauty, deceitful, honest, cheerful, sad,, 
confiding, pent-up, starved, well-fed, mischievous, sly, 
sober? Is the chest full or hollow? Shoulders droop- 
ing or erect? Is the general appearance awkward, 
graceful, or proud ? Is self-consciousness of bodily 
defects noticeable? Are hands or feet or general pose 
of body objects toward which the abnormal self-con- 
sciousness of the pupil is directed ? Can you absorb 
the attention of the pupil to such an extent that thon 
no longer observes thons own awkwardness ? 

Disposition. — How do the various physical features 
indicate the disposition ? Is the child kind or unkind ? 
Grateful or ungrateful ? Careful or careless ? Cheer- 



HOW TO OBSERVE CHILDREN. 109 

-ful or sad? Sensitive or indifferent? Respectful to 
superiors, equals, or inferiors ? Can you trust thon ? 
Does thon endure punishment with a spirit of fearless- 
ness and indifference ? Does thon resent punishment ? 
Does thon retaliate ? Can thon see right from wrong 
in all cases ? Inclined to take the advantage of other 
pupils? Rejoice in the pleasures and successes of 
others, or in their failures? Selfish? A leader in 
games, or a mere follower ? How do all these traits 
of disposition correspond with the disposition of the 
parent? Does the father see as wrong in the child 
what is wrong in himself? What general insight do 
the recitations, conversations, and plays of the child 
give you? 

Exercise of the Senses. — Most knowledge is ob- 
tained through sense-perception. Are the senses all 
normal? (Do not say j/es to this question too soon.) 
Test them all thoroughly. Can the pupil appreciate 
the beauties of nature? No? Then something is 
wrong. Can the pupil appreciate music? Beautiful 
sentiment in poetry? If not, then something is 
wTong. Does the pupil hear accurately what you 
:say? If not, is it the ear or the attention that is at 
fault? Can thon repeat what has been said? If not, 
is it the ear, the attention, or the memory that must 
be cultivated? Can thon see all objects distinctly? 
Do not accept the pupil's ov/n answers here as con- 
clusive. Do not other pupils see more accurately? 
Question carefully. Is it the sight or the power of 
observation that is defective ? Test the eyes with a 
test card, or by other means, to learn if hyperme- 
itropia, myopia, astigmatism, or emmetropia exist. Is 



no HOW TO OBSKRVK CHII^DREN. 

the hearing good? Can the pupil distinguish differ- 
ences in tone and pitch? Distinguish between har- 
mony and melody in musical sounds? If the sight or 
hearing be imperfect, many of the channels of knowl- 
edge are closed. These facts must be known to the 
teacher. Even so slight a thing as a cold in the head 
or nose, or catarrh, will very greatly affect a child's 
aptitude to learn. So will the slightest defect in sight 
or hearing. 

Observation.— Test the power to observe. What 
kind of objects does the child observe best? Are 
the distinguishing characteristics observed? Are the 
many qualities of a thing observed in general, or a 
few qualities in detail? Test it frequently. Does 
observation permanently assist the memory of the 
child ? How does repetition affect the memory ? How 
does reproduction affect the child's effort to observe? 
Are the judgments arising from observation logical? 
For instance, can the child judge properly of size, 
distance, form, color? Are things and parts named 
in the order they depend upon each other ? Accurate 
observation with a view to reproduction will rapidly 
add to a child's vocabulary, and at the same time 
furnish the" teacher a fruitful means of studying the 
child. 

Sense= Perception. — Does the pupil readily distin- 
guish colors, sounds, forms, names? Does thon hesi- 
tate in deciding the classification of familiar objects ? 
Can thon appreciate the beautiful in nature? Does 
thon apprehend well ? Comprehend well ? Are thons 
perceptions chiefly original? Fertile in acquired per- 
ceptions? Does the pupil properly judge distances 



HOW TO OBSKRVK CHII^DRKN. Ill 

and sizes? Determine thons judgments as to such 
lengths as inch, foot, yard, rod, mile ; also as to size of 
pint, quart, gallon, bushel, etc. Can the pupil draw 
familiar objects? The cultivation of sense-perception 
goes hand in hand with observation, repetition, and 
reproduction. Notice, also, what effect your attitude, 
general appearance, tone of voice, expression of face, 
and sociability have upon the pupil. Is a word at 
once recognized when seen? Does the pronunciation 
of a familiar word occasion a mental picture of it? Do 
the environments of the pupil under study affect thons 
power to perceive? Does the pupil usually seek an 
unfavorable position in recitation? Would thon rather 
not be called upon to recite ? If so, what is the cause? 
Is the attention of the pupil chiefly on thonself, an- 
other person or object, or on the subject at hand ? Is 
lack of attention, and the consequent perception, due 
to want of knowledge necessary as antecedent? When 
characteristics of objects are noted by the pupil unas- 
sisted, are they the essential or non-essential character- 
istics? These questions will suggest to the teacher 
many lines along which to observe. 

Apperception. — Can the child apperceive well ? Can 
the child correlate new facts and class them with 
knowledge previously acquired? In apperceiving the 
new are points of difference or of similarity noted most 
readily? The teacher must remember that much that 
passes through the senses is not understood by the 
child. By skillful questioning and close observation 
the teacher will be led to know these difficulties en- 
countered by the child's efforts to apperceive. 

Imagination. — Note what kind of mental images 



112 HOW TO OBSKRVK CHIJ.DRKN. 

the child forms most readily ; the kind the child most 
deHghts in, and the kind the lesson at hand requires. 
Is the imagination fanciful or realistic ? Is it creative 
or reproductive ? Does the child readily use the con- 
structive imagination? Test these forms by repro- 
duction stories, original stories by the child, or the con- 
version of the thoughts of a printed page into a real 
picture or a drawing or into an oral description. The 
reading lessons should be fruitful sources for these 
tests. 

Memory. — If the memory is imperfect, does it de- 
pend upon the retention, the recognition, or the repro^ 
duction ? The retention will depend upon all the con- 
ditions affecting perception. If retention is poor, seek 
the cause. Have the repetitions been sufficiently 
numerous? Are the images recognized clearly? Is 
the reproduction real or mechanical? Are concepts 
associated logically in the thing recalled? Did the 
pupil have experiences with which to associate the 
facts? Is the pupil's inability to recall due to improper 
form in which the questions are asked? Much de- 
pends upon the skillful questioning by the teacher. 
Is the pupil's memory a memory of words or of ideas? 
Does the pupil learn best by oral repetition or by 
silent conning? Does the pupil recall words and sen- 
tences by their position on the page? Does the pupil 
-substitute words of equivocal meaning? Or of equiv- 
ocal sounds ? Many of these facts must be determined 
by asking the child. 

Conception. — Here is a fruitful field for the study 
of the child. Not infrequently children get erroneous 
concepts in school that are a source of annoyance in 



HOW TO OBSE^RVE CHII^DRKN. II3 

later years. Ideas of children are often ridiculous and 
absurd. Determine whether the pupil's concepts are 
exclusive or -inclusive. Do they include more or less 
than belongs to the object, or to the class, as it may 
be ? When new objects are presented does the pupil 
readily get the relation of the objects to those adready 
known? Does the pupil require many and varied 
-examples or illustrations before thons new concepts 
are clearly formed? Can thon quickly classify ob- 
jects? Can the object be clearly discerned from the 
pupil's definition ? Does the child readily distinguish 
characteristics, or essential qualities? 

Reasoning. — Observe while studying the concep- 
tion of the child. Test the reasoning faculties by 
inductive methods.. If the pupil be able to under- 
stand deductive reasoning, conduct frequent tests in 
the analysis of wholes, noting carefully every error, 
the nature of it, the cause, and the most suitable 
method to use to correct it. What is the extent of 
the pupil's power to draw inferences? Many such 
facts can be determined to the satisfaction of the 
teacher only by the application of frequent tests. 

References.— Students will do well to read Pres. 
C. S. Hall on " The Contents of Children's Minds " ; 
**' Mental Development in the Child and the Race," by 
Baldwin ; ''The Mind of the Child," by Preyer; "The 
First Three Years of Childhood," by Perez; Sully, in 
the Popular Science Monthly of 1894-5, on Child 
Psychology ; I^ange on Apperception ; Report of the 
International Congress of Educators at Chicago, 1893. 
8 



114 ^HK I.ITKRATURK OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 



THE LITERATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

The author desires to acknowledge the able assist- 
ance of Mr. C. W. Bardeen, of Syracuse, C. P. Gary, 
Professor of Pedagogy, State Normal School, Milwau- 
kee, and Dr. William T. Harris, U. S. Commissioner of 
Education, in the preparation of this list of works on 
Psychology and kindred topics. This list will be of 
great service to teachers and to students in directing 
their reading and investigation along the lines of these 
subjects. For a list of books in the German language 
the reader is referred to the excellent table of references, 
in Rein's "Outlines of Pedagogics," where a complete 
bibliography of several hundred works is given. The 
titles indicated by an asterisk (*) are the titles of books 
required by the State Board of Examiners of Ohio as a 
course of study for all applicants for High School Life 
and Special Life Certificates. 

Works of Reference. 

Hall, G. Stanley, and John M. Mansfield. Bibliography 
of Education. Boston, 1886. 8mo. 

Kiddle, Henry, and A. J. Schem, editors. The Cyclo- 
pedia of Education. New York, London, 1877, 
1883. 8m.o. 

Sonnenschein, William Swan. Cyclopedia of Educa- 
tion, edited by Alfred E. Fletcher. Syracuse, N. Y., 
1889. 8mo. $3.75. 

Buisson's Dictionnaire de Pedagogic. $20.00. 



THK I^ITKRATURB OF PSYCHOIvOGY. II5 

The History of Education. 

Bennett's History of Pedagogics. 50 cents. 

Payne's Short History of Education. 50 cents. 

American Journal of Education, edited by Henry Bar- 
nard, 31 volumes, 1855-1 88 1. 

Brocket, L. P. (Philobiblius, pseudonym). History and 
Progress of Education. New York and Chicago. 310 
pages, i2mo. 

*Compayre, Gabriel. The History of Pedagogy. Trans- 
lated by Pres. W. H. Payne. Boston, 1886. 592 
pages, i2mo. $1.60. 

Hailmann, W. N. Sketches from the History of Edu- 
cation. 1891, in the series "Library of Education." 

Laurie, S. S. The Rise and Early Constitution of 
Universities. 12 mo. In the: International Educa- 
tion Series, edited by Dr. W. T. Harris. $1.50. 

^Painter, F. V. N. A History of Education. i2mo. 
In International Education Series, edited by Dr. W. 
T. Harris. $1.50. 

Reinhart, J. A. Outlines of the History of Education. 
1 89 1. In Teachers' Professional Library. 

Schmidt, H. I. History of Education. In Harper's 
Family Library. 

Williams, Samuel G. History of Modern Education. 
An account of the course of educational opinion and 
practice from the Revival of Learning to the present 
time. 395 pages, 1 2mo. Syracuse, N. Y. $1.50. 

American Education. 

Adams, Francis. Free School System of the United 

States. London, 1875. 8mo. 
Boone, Richard G. Education in the United States. 

Its history from the earliest settlements. 1889, i2mo. 

In International Education Series. $1.50. 
Frasier, James. Common School System of the 

United States, and of the Provinces of Upper and 

Lower Canada, 1867. 
*Mann, Horace, and the Boston Schoolmasters. 8mo . 



ii6 the; literature: of psychology. 

Contributions to American Educational History. Ed- 
ited by Herbert B. Adams, and published by the 
United States Bureau of Education. 19 volumes, 
covering the following subjects : College of William 
and Mary, Thomas Jefferson and the University of 
Virginia, History of Federal and State Education in 
the United States, and the history of education in 
states of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, 
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THE LITERATURE OF PSYCHOEOGY. I17 

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QUESTIONS. 12' 



QUESTIONS. 

The figures following the topics refer to the pages 
upon which answers to the questions may be found. 
Questions not answered in the text are answered here. 

The Synopsis (5). — What is the chief merit of an outUne? 
2. Define psychology. 3. What are phenomena? Atts. Mani- 
festations of differentiated energy, or the activities of nature. 
4. Name the methods of study. 5. Define the introspective 
m.ethod. 6. What is its synonym ? 7. What is the inferential 
method ? 8. The physiological ? 9. The textbook method ? 
10. Classify the powers of the soul. 11. Name its general 
powers. 12. Its individual powers. 13. Name the three intel- 
lectual powers. 14. What are the three divisions of each? 
15. What are the cognitive powers? 16. Classify the feelings. 
17. Classify the psychical feelings. 

Definition (8). — 18. Define psychology as Gordy does. 19. 
What does Steele say? 20. What are mental facts? Ans. 
Those known to but one person, and that the person ex- 
periencing them. 21. Why is the first definition preferred? 
:22. What is the etymolog)^ of the word "psychology"? 23. 
What is the province of psychology ? 24. Why is a knowledge 
of ps3xhology necessary to a good education ? 25. What is its 
strongest claim ? 26, Give four reasons why teachers should 
study it. 27. Why should prospective teachers study it ? 28. 
Repeat the quotations on page 9. 29. Why should all pro- 
fessional persons study it? 

The Soul (9). — 30. What is the soul? 31. What synonj^ms 
for soul ? 32. Define ego. 33. The non-ego. 34. Mind. 35. 
Spirit. 36. What distinction between soul and ""spirit? 37. 
Have dogs souls? 38. Have they a spirit ? 39. Do dogs reason ? 



124 QUESTIONS. 

40. Have they a moral conscience? 41. Have brutes person- 
ality? 42. What is the distinction between mind and soul?" 
43. Why may mind be said to be finite? 44. What powers are 
exercised by the soul ? 45. Who made this classification? 46. 
Define each. 47. Is all the soul required to feel ? A?2S. Yes ;. 
the sensibility of the soul is not a part of the soul, but an ac- 
tivity, the soul exercising itself in a certain direction. 48. Is 
all the soul required to think ? 49. To will ? 

Psychology Proper (10).— 50. Classify psychology. 51. 
What is meant by " the old psychology"? Aus.. All rational 
psychology and empirical psychology may be called the old. 
psychology, to distinguish it from what is known as " the hew 
psycholog}^," which may be divided into physiological psychol- 
ogy, first advanced in 1861 by Broca, and what is known in 
later researches as "child-study." 52. Define empirical psy- 
chology. 53. What of its importance? 54. Define rational 
psychology. 55. Which is inductive? Ans. Empirical. 56, 
Which is a priori in its nature ? Ans. Rational. 57. Why is- 
empirical psychology a posteriori ? Ans. Because its princi- 
ples follow experience and observation, 58. W^hich is of most 
value to teachers? 59. Why? 60. What is the correct use of 
the terms cognition, feeling, and volition ? 6r. Name the meth- 
ods of study. 62. What is said of the study of self ? 63. How 
do we study self? 64. What are the difficulties of the method ?" 
65. W^hat is introspection? 66. What is its greatest advantage? 
67. How does memory aid us in introspection ? 68. How is a 
law of mental activity obtained ? 69. What synonym for intro- 
spection? 70. What is the inferential method? 71, What 
synonym? 72. Do we use the objective in the study of our 
own minds ? 73. What is the advantage of this method ? 74.. 
Its disadvantage ? 75. Why should the teacher study the home- 
influences of the child? 76. What is the relation of these twO' 
methods ? 77. In what three ways is the inferential method 
used? 78. Name and define the auxiliary branches. 79. What 
is said of the study of psychology from books ? 80. Why is the 
method somewhat difficult? 81. Why is it necessary? 82., 
Give the etymology of " introspection." 83. Upon what are. 
the laws of psychology based ? 



QUESTIONS. 125 

Relation of Psychical to Physical (14).— 84. Why are the 

soul and body related? 85. How? 86. "What is this relation? 
•S7. What of this doctrine ? 88. What does Herbart say on this 
subject? 89. Who was Herbart? (See History of Bducation.) 
90. What two classes of theories of the relation of body and 
soul? 91. What is monism ? 92. Etymology? 93. Its forms? 
94. What is materialism? 95. What was Bain's view? 96. 
Define idealism. 97. Name some idealists. 98. What was 
Xocke's view? 99. Quote Mill's view. 100. Define agnosti- 
cism, loi. Who is Herbert Spenser ? 102, What of his 
_great work? 103. Define dualism. 104. Its etymology. 105. 
Its forms. 106. Define mysticism. 107. What was the theory 
-of Leibnitz ? 108. What is dualistic realism ? 109. What of its 
validity? no. Who was Thomas Reid ? in. James McCosh? 
112. Name the processes in every complete sensation. 113. 
Define external excitant. 114. What else called? 115. Illus- 
trate an external excitant. 116. What is the sensorium ? 
117. What is the psychical excitement ? 118. What synonym? 
119. What two kinds of sensations ? 

The Nervous System (19).— 120. Of what is the cerebro- 
-spinal system composed? 121. Define encephalon, and name 
its parts. 122. Describe the cerebrum. 123. What is the cor- 
tex ? 124. How many cells in the cerebrum ? 125. What is 
their function ? 126. What is the function of the cerebrum? 
127. Describe the cerebellum. 128. What its function? 129. 
What is the seat of thought? 130. Describe the medulla 
•oblongata. 131. What its function? 132. How is intellec- 
tuality related to size of brain ? 133. Name some examples as 
^roof 134. Is respiration a voluntary act ? 135. What effect 
"does mental exercise have upon the brain ? 136. When is the 
brain relatively largest ? 137. When largest ? 

The Nerves (21). — ^^138. What are sensory nerves? 139. 
What synonyms? 140. What are motor nerves? 141. Are 
sensations carried from the brain ? 142. What two synonyms 
for motor nerves ? 143. Why are each of the six terms so 
-used? 144. What are mixed nerves? 145. Describe the spinal 
'Cord. 146. Its functions. 147. Of what does the sympathetic 
system consist? 148. Its functions? 



126 QUESTIONS. 

The Special Senses (23).— 149. what can you say of the 

olfactory nerve? 150. What is its physical excitant? 151. 
The sensorial excitement? 152.- Name the nerves of taste. 
153. The excitant. 154. The sensorial excitement. 155. 
Describe the modifications of this sense. 156. What sensa- 
tions are detected by the tongue ? 157. What is the relation 
between taste and smell ? 158. Illustrate. 159. What is the 
nerve of hearing? 160. How do we hear? 161. Where are 
the sensorial end-plates of the auditory nerve ? 162, How 
does experience aid the judgments of hearing? 163. What is 
the nerve of sight ? 164. What nerves arise directly from the 
cerebrum? 165. How do we see? 166. In what respect does 
seeing resemble hearing ? 167. In what respect do they 
differ ? 168. Which is the most remarkable sense ? 169. 
Name the auxiliaries to sight. 170. What is ether? 171. 
How do we judge of distance? 172. How do we learn size?' 
173. If everything in the world of matter should be suddenly 
reduced to one half its present size, while we were asleep, 
would we be aware of the change? Ans. No. 174. What are 
tactile nerves? 175. Where do nerves possess sensibility? 
Ans. The end-plates only. 176. What does touch involve ? 
177. What is said of the diversity of the sense-perceptions of 
touch? 178. What is the excitant in touch? 

Powers of the Soul (26). — 179. Name the general powers 
of the soul. 180. Define general power. 181. What is their 
general function? 182. What is a faculty? 183. Name the in- 
dividual powers of the soul. See page 40. 184. Define con- 
sciousness. 185. How distinguished from self-consciousness? 
186. Quote each definition given. 187. In what respects do 
these differ? 188. How is the term used? 189. Etymology? 
190. What are the objects of consciousness ? 191. Distinguish 
between immediate and mediate knowledge. 192. Classify the 
objects of consciousness. 193. Are we conscious of the soul? 
194. What is the state of consciousness ? 195. What was Hamil- 
ton's view? 196. When are we conscious? 197, Are we con- 
scious of a past act ? 198. Are we conscious of things we re- 
member? 199, What are psychical phenomena? A71S. Mani- 
festations of the activity of the soul. 200. What are the three 



QUESTIONS. 127 

classes of psychical plienomeiia? 201. How is consciousness 
related to the intellect ? 202. Name the kinds of consciousness. 
203. Define natural consciousness. 204. Ethical. 205. Abnor- 
mal. 206, To what causes is abnormal consciousness due? 
207. What of the degrees of consciousness? 208. What are the 
three necessary conditions of consciousness ? 209. How is 
attention related to consciousness ? 210. Give an original illus- 
tration of voluntary consciousness. 211. What can you say 
of unconscious mental activity? 212. What is cerebration? 
Ans. The process by which brain activity results in a change 
of psychical power. 213. What is unconscious cerebration? 

214. Can brain activity be unaccompanied by mental activity? 

215. Can there be mental activity without brain activity ? 216. 
Can there be mental activity without consciousness? 217. 
Give an orginal illustration to bear you out in your answer to 
No. 215. 218. Can consciousness be cultivated? 219. Give 
reason. 220. Can involuntary acts be trained? 

Attention (30).— 221.. What is attention? 222. Etymology 
of the word ? 223. Explain this literal meaning. 224. Quote 
each author mentioned. 225. How is the term applied ? 226. 
What is observation ? 227. What does it include ? 228. What 
are the classes of attention ? 229. What is reflection ? 230. 
What two mental powers are exercised in reflection? 23T. 
What, then, is the distinction between the two ? 232. What is 
voluntary attention? 233. Etymology? 234, The elements? 
235. At what age does the child first learn to attend? 236. 
What are the two main functions of voluntary attention ? 237. 
What is non-voluntary attention ? 238. What are the causes ? 
239. Which is usually unaccompanied by reason ? Ans. Non- 
voluntary. 240. Give illustrations from your own observation 
of non-voluntary attention in adults. 241. What is the special 
value of each kind of attention ? 242. To what objects may 
attention be directed? 243. Can we attend to psychical phe- 
nomena? 244. What does Gordy say? 245. Explain the state- 
ment. 246. Is seeing a feeling? Ans. Yes. 247. Discuss the 
relation of mental activity to attention. 248. Can we attend 
to more than one thing at a time ? 249. Can we think more 
than one thing at a time ? 250. Quote from a half dozen other 



J 23 QUESTIONS. 

-authors in regard to this question. 251. Recite the five gen- 
eral laws of attention. 252. Which of these apply to voluntary 
•attention ? 253. Which to non-voluntary ? 254. Give Weber's 
Ivaw. 255. Illustrate its meaning. 256. Name seven condi- 
tions unfavorable to attention. 257. Why may repetition ren- 
der a pupil inattentive ? 258. Explain the 4th cause. 259. By 
-which kind of attention do we gain the most knowledge ? 260. 
Why? 261. Name five motives on the part of the pupil that 
may be appealed to in securing the attention ? 262. What is 
your estimate of the value of each ? 263. Quote the " Royal 
Seven " incentives. 264. Which of these do you think the best 
incentive to use in securing the attention ? 265. Why ? 266. 
Does the nature or disposition of the child have anything to do 
with the selection of the incentive ? 267. Name other incen- 
tives not named here. 268. Do these incentives apply to vol- 
untary or non-voluntary attention ? 269. Name from observa- 
tion other causes of inattention. 270. Name the seven requi- 
sites on the part of the teacher. 271. Explain the effect of dis- 
obeying the second injunction. 272. Why should the teacher 
stand before the class? 273. How may skillful questioning 
liold the attention of the pupil ? 274. What is said of the 
.growth of attention in childhood? 275. Upon which senses 
are the stimuli most effective ? 276. Why ? 277. What im- 
portance attaches to this fact ? 278. What great educators acted 
chiefly upon this suggestion ? 279. Can the attention be cul- 
tivated? 280. How? 281. Describe some practical application 
•of the first rule given, page 35. 282. How will reproduction 
stories aid in cultivating the attention? 

Conception (35}. — 283. Define conception. 284. Etymology 
of the word. 285. What does this mean ? 286. What are the 
three processes of conception ? 287. Into what five may these 
iDe divided ? 288. What is presentation ? 289. Comparison ? 
(These two constitute analysis.) 290. What is abstraction ? 
:29i. Etymology of the word? 292. Define generalization. 
:293. What does it embrace ? 294. Define denomination. 295. 
What does it embrace ? 296. What is nomenclature ? 297. 
"Terminology ? 298. What is classification ? 299. How does it 
differ from conception? 300. Is conception a faculty? 301. 



QUESTIONS. 129 

"What is a concept ? 302. Classify concepts. 303. Define each 
-class. 304. What are logical concepts? 305. Individual con- 
-cepts ? 306. Give an original illustration to show the difference 
between simple and general concepts. 307. Can the concep- 
tion be cultivated ? 308. What is the difference between a con- 
cept and an image? (See page 45.) 309. Between a concept 
and an idea? 310, How can the conception be cultivated? 311. 
What can you say of the relation of conception to education ? 
312. What steps of conception are most essential to scientific 
l^nowledge ? 313. Why is conception developed by linguistic 
stud}^? 314. What are the three essential processes in the 
growth of the mind? 315. Illustrate these steps in the acqui- 
sition of any new fact of knowledge. 316. Discuss the method 
of developing abstract ideas. 317. What is the crowning 
notion of science ? 318. Should definition of things precede 
or follow observation? 319. Why? 320. Name the individual 
powers of the soul and the three divisions of each. 

Intellect (40). — 321. What is the intellect? 322. Etymol- 
og].^ ? 323. Name the functions of the intellect. 324. Define 
•each. 325. What is knowledge? 326. Classify the objects of 
knowledge. 327. What are subjective objects? 328. Objective? 
329. Relational ? 330. Repeat the classification of knowledge- 
,331. What is scientific knowledge ? 332. Distinguish between 
primitive and developed knowledge. 333. In acquiring which, 
is the apperception used ? 334. What is presentative knowl- 
edge ? 335. What are the means of this knowledge ? 336. 
Define representative knowledge. 337. Blaborative. 338. 
Constitutive. 339. Name the classes of intellectual powers. 
340. What are presentative powers? Ans. Powers by means 
of which knowledge is presented to the soul. 341. What are 
the acquisitional powers ? 342. Distinguish between conscious- 
ness and self-consciousness. 343. What are the forms of self- 
•consciousness ? 

Sense=Perception (42). — 344. What is sense-perception ? 
.345. What is the foundation of all our knowledge? 346. The 
sources of all our knowledge? 347. Give etymology of the 
"term perception. 348. Name the three uses of the term sense- 
j>erception. 349, Give an original illustration of each use. 



130 QUESTIONS. 

350. How many physical conditions of sense-perception ? 351, 
Name them. 352, "What may these conditions be called? 
353. What is the sensorium ? The motorium ? 354. What are 
the psychical elements of sense-perception? 355. What is 
perception proper ? 356. What is sensation ? 357. Can a 
psychical phenomenon produce sensation ? Ans. It is gen- 
erally claimed that the phenomenon must be physical, or 
material, but what shall w^e do with such cases as the man 
that suffered such agony when he found himself accidentally 
impaled on a butcher's hook, declaring that the flesh was torn 
from the bone, the blood was streaming down his arm, when 
in fact he was only suspended by his coat sleeve, unhurt? 
Many such examples could be given. 358. Classify sense- 
perception. 359. What is an original perception? 360. An 
acquired perception ? 361. Give the illustrations. 362. Give 
six other illustrations of acquired perceptions. 363. Classify 
acquired perceptions. 364. What is the '* mechanical con- 
science " ? 365. Give an example of an acquired perception ot 
each class. 366. Which are of most value ? 367. What do we 
judge by sight? 368. How does experience aid the sight? 
369. Classify the senses. 370. Why this classification? 371. 
Explain the meaning of each term. 

Percepts (45). — 372. What is a percept? 373. When do we 
have a percept of an object ? 374. Distinguish between per- 
cept and concept. 375. Between percept and image. 376. Can 
all percepts be revived into images? 377. What is a sense- 
concept ? 378. What can you say of the growth of our per- 
ception ? 379. What is the power of discrimination ? 380. 
What does a study of the laws of perception teach us in 
regard to the studies of childhood? 381. What is said of con- 
crete facts? 382. Of object lessons? 383. What of the child's 
perceptive faculty ? 384. Upon what is kindergartenism based ? 
385. Who founded kindergartenism ? 386. What is the etymol- 
ogy of the word ? 

Intuition (47) •—387. Define intuition. 388. What of its 
relation? 389. What does intuition embrace? 390. Define 
intuitive ideas. 391. Classify them. 392. Name one not men- 
tioned here. 393. What can you say of the idea of right and 



QUESTIONS. 131 

wrong? 394. Prove that ideas of personal identity are intu- 
itive. 395. What is " natural reason " ? 396. Do you doubt 
that ideas of right and wrong are intuitive? 397. Have idiots 
any intuition? 398. Have insane persons? 399. Explain 
your answer to the last. 400. What are intuitive truths ? 401. 
What synonyms ? 402. Name the tests of an intuitive truth. 
403. Explain each of these tests. 404. Can you doubt an 
intuitive truth? 405. Can you disbelieve one? 406. Name 
three intuitive truths not named here. 407. What is an 
axiom? 408. Why intuitive? 409. Repeat three axioms not 
mathematical. 

Representative Powers (49). — 410. What are representative 
powers? 411. Illustrate representation by an original example. 
412. By what other term may these powers be called ? 413. 
Name the three representative powers. 414. What is phan- 
tasy? 415. What is said of images thus reproduced? 416. 
Etymology? 417. When exercised? 418. Name the subor- 
dinate forms of phantasy. 419. The simplest form. 420, 
What is somnambulism ? 421. What is the distinction be- 
tween phantasy and memory? 422. What are the causes of 
phantasy? 423. Name the characteristics of the idea thus 
reproduced. 424. What are the three modes of reproducing 
images in phantasy? 425. Illustrate physical stimulation. 
426. Physiological stimulation. 427. Psychical. 

Imagination (51). — 428. What is imagination? 429. Name 
its activities. 430. Illustrate associative imagination. 431. 
Penetrative. 432. Contemplative. 433. What can yoii say of 
the limits of imagination? 434. Distinguish between phan- 
tasy and imagination. 435. Quote Baker. 436. Quote any 
other author on the subject. 437. What are the forms of imag- 
ination? 438. Define scientific imagination. 439. Illustrate 
its use. 440. Its forms ? 441. Define artistic imagination. 
442. Its forms ? 443. What is the aim of ethical imagination ? 
444. What of its importance? 445. What is the relation of 
imagination to education ? 446. Illustrate its use in reading. 
447. In science study. 448. In exercise of the senses. 449. 
Name five uses in composition. 450. What would man be 
without an imagination ? 451. What effect would it have upon 



132 QUESTIONS. 

his character? 452. Illustrate how the exercise of imagination 
affords us enjoyment. 453. How does it render the mortal 
happy? 454. How does it affect language ? 455. What is the 
ethical value of an ideal ? 456. Repeat the four general laws 
of the imagination. 457. What is the difference between the 
notions we may imagine and those we may think ? 458. What 
is the characteristic of an undisciplined mind? 459. What 
should be the aim of the educator? 460. Name four means of 
training the imagination. 461. What is said of the importance 
of the observation work to be done hj the pupil? 462. Why 
is this often neglected? 463. What imaginative literature 
would you read to first -year pupils? 464. To second-year 
pupils ? 465. What profit to pupils in constructing questions 
and problems? 466. Name the phases of imagination. 467. 
What can you say of the modifying phase ? 468. Of the con- 
structive phase ? 469. Of the creative phase ? 470. What is 
" hearing-language " ? Ans. The language learned through 
hearing, 471. What can you say of the value of the creative 
phase of imagination ? 472. Which phase should the teacher 
strive most to cultivate ? 473. Why ? 

Memory (55). — 474. What is memory? 475. Discuss the 
several definitions given. 476. What does Compayre's defi- 
nition mean ? 477. How many acts of memory ? 478. Name 
these acts, or steps. 479. Define retention. 480, What de- 
pends upon retention? 481, Upon what does retention depend? 
482. What is reproduction ? 483. Its importance ? 484. Define 
recognition. 485. Illustrate these three steps in some act of 
memory. 486. Distinguish between perfect and imperfect 
memory. 487. Why are the acts of memory usually imper- 
fect ? 488. What is voluntary recollection ? 489. What is the 
difference between memory and recollection? 490. What is 
involuntary recollection ? 491. Enumerate the conditions 
favorable for the cultivation of the memory. 492. What does 
the first mean ? 493. How does repetition affect reproduction ? 
494. What is said of the study of relations ? 495, What is am- 
nesia? 496. Its causes? 497. The degrees of forgetfulness? 

Association {58). — 498. What are the laws of association ? 
499. By whom first laid down ? 500. Classify these laws. 501. 



QUESTIONS. 133 

Name the objective laws of association. 502. Define the law 
of similarity. 503. The law of contrast. 504. The law of con- 
tiguity. 505. What can you say of the value of a recognition 
of the law of contrast in teaching? 506. Illustrate its impor- 
tance. 507. The same of the law of similarity. 508, The law of 
contiguity. 509. V/hat is contiguity of time i* 510. Of place? 

511. In teaching what branches are these laws most important? 

512. To what do the subjective laws relate ? 513. What is said 
of the relation between cause and effect? 514. What mistake 
do teachers often make here ? 515. What faculties are strength- 
ened by the exercise of this law ? 516. What is said of reviews ? 
517. Does the fifth law hold good with all ages ? 

The Cultivation of the Memory (59).— 518. What is the 
general rule for the cultivation of the memory? 519. What is 
said of skillful questioning ? 520. What of memory of ideas ? 
521. How is interest related to attention? 522. What is a 
mnemonic ? 523. What of the value of mnemonics ? 524. 
Name a mnemonic device not mentioned in this work. 

Thought Powers (60). — 525. Define thought powers. 526. 
Classify them. 527. What are the relational powers of the 
intellect ? 528. Why so called ? 529. What is apperception ? 
530. What can you say of conceptive generalization? 531. 
Define judgment, 532, What is a judgment? 533. How ex- 
pressed? 534. The parts of a judgment? 535. What are the 
parts of a proposition ? 536. What is the copula ? 537. How 
is a judgment obtained? 53S. How do we form a judgment? 
539. At what age is judgment first developed ? 540. Classify 
judgments as to origin. 541. As to relation of their two ideas. 
542. As to their quantity. 543. As to form, 544. Define affirm- 
ative judgment. 545. Derivative. 546, Primitive. 547. Neg- 
ative. 548. Singular. 549. Universal. 550. Categorical. 551. 
Conditional, 552. Illustrate each of these by judgments not 
here expressed. 553. How far can we encourage independent 
judgment in the learner? 554. In what way is the judgment 
cultivated ? 

Reason (63).— 555. What is reason? 556. When do chil- 
dren begin to reason ? 557. What is the first period in the 
child's reasoning? 558. Name in order these periods, and the 



134 QUESTIONS. 

corresponding ages. 559. What are the two forms of reason- 
ing? 560 Define each. 561. What are the two methods of 
reasoning. 562. Define Induction. 563. Explain Sully's 
definition of induction. 564. What is meant by proceeding 
from the known to the unknown ? 565. Show how you would 
do this in teaching grammar. 566. What is the ground for 
our theory of known to unknown ? 567. May the syllogism 
be used in induction ? 568. May the enthymeme ? 569. Name 
the steps of every act of induction. 570. What is deduction ? 
571. What are the two forms of deduction ? 572. Define 
enthymeme. 573. Illustrate. 

The Syllogism (66). — 574. What is a syllogism? 575. 
Name the parts of a syllogism, 576* What is the requisite 
of the major premise? 577. Of the minor premise ? 578. Of 
the conclusion ? 579. Criticise this syllogism: " All gold is yel- 
low ; this metal is yellow, therefore, this metal is gold." 580. 
W^rite an original syllogism. 581. Name the terms of a syllo- 
gism. 582. What is the special value to the student in under- 
standing the use of the S3dlogism ? 583. Explain the"difference 
between the parts of a syllogism and its terms. 584. What can 
you say of the relation of reason to education ? 585. How is 
inductive reasoning best developed? 586. Deductive reason- 
ing? 587. Is psychology inductive or deductive? 

Sensibility (67) 588. What is the sensibility ? 589. What 

are the sensibilities? 590. Classify feelings. 591. What are 
corporeal feelings? 592. Define psychical feelings. 593 
Classify the psychical feelings. 594. Define emotions. 595 
Classify them. 596. What are instinctive emotions? 597 
Rational? 598. How are instinctive emotions occasioned! 
599. Rational? 600. Classify the rational emotions. 601 
Name some egoistic emotions. 602. Altruistic emotions 
603. What is the distinction between them ? 604. What is 
the aim of aesthetic emotions ? 605. Of the ethical ? 

The Affections (69) — 606. What are the affections ? 607. 
Classify affections. 608. What are beneficent affections ? 
609. By what other name known? Ans. Benevolent. 610. 
Classify them. 611. What is patriotism? 612. What is phi- 
lanthropy? 613. What are the defensive affections? 614. 



QUESTIONS. 135 

"What is resentment ? 615. What is retaliation ? A?is. Return- 
ing injury for injury. 616. Is resentment right? u4ns. Yes. 
617. What is indignation? 618. What are the maleficent 
affections? 619. B}^ ^hat other name known? Ans. Malevo- 
lent. 620. What notice should teachers take of the study of 
the affections? 621. How will a knowledge of the affections 
of a child aid the teacher in discipline ? 

The Desires (70).— 622. What are desires? 623. Classify 
the desires. 624. What of the desire for property? 625. Do 
you think this desire intuitive ? 626. In what does the desire 
for knowledge have its .origin ? 627. Is the desire for self- 
preservation instinctive? 628. Is it intuitive? 629. When 
should the desire for powder be encouraged? 630. When 
curbed ? 

The Will (71).— 631. What is the will? 632. What is vo- 
lition ? 633. What are two forms of the activity of the willing 
power of the soul ? 634. What is said of random movements ? 
635. Name the four steps in the act of willing? 636. Illus- 
trate each of these. 637. In which step is the freedom of 
choice exercised? 638. Is man a free moral agent? 639. 
Why ? 640. Is character due more to nature or to culture ? 
641. Upon what does moral training depend? 642. What is 
the first step in moral training? 643. What use may be made 
of biographies here ? 644. Name six men whose biographies 
3^ou would specially commend for lessons on moral training. 
645. What do you think of the use of fairy tales? 646. Men- 
tion other means for training the morals. 647. What is said 
of example ? 648. Which is worth more to the pupil, example 
or precept? 

Pe(?agogy (73). — 649. What is pedagogy ? 650. Synonyms? 
651. What is the basis of pedagogy ? 652. What are the means 
of pedagogy ? 653. What is physical education ? 654. Moral 
education ? 655. Intellectual ? 656. What are the elements of 
pedagogy? 657. What is original knowledge ? 658. Recorded? 
Tuitionary knowledge ? 659. How can the mind receive knowl- 
edge? 660. What is inherent power? 661. Acquired? 66.2. 
What is skill ? 663. What is the school phase of skill ? 664. 
The technical phase ? 665. What are the subjective conditions 



136 QUESTIONS. 

of school government? 666. What are the objective con- 
ditions ? 667. Enumerate the qualifications of the teacher. 
668. Illustrate the second qualification. 669. What is said of 
special professional training? 670. What can you say of the 
teacher's knowledge of methods ? 671. Upon what must disci- 
pline be based? 672. What is said of heart powers? 673. Of 
self-control ? 674 Of respect for the profession ?_ 675. What 
can you say of the authority of the teacher? 

The Pupils (76). — 676. Enumerate the rights of pupils, 
677. Their duties. 678. Discuss each of these. 679. Classify 
the offenses of pupils. 680. Discuss each of these offenses, 
and tell how each should be corrected. 681. Would you allow 
pupils to report on each other? 682. What do you think of 
the self-reporting system, as to the conduct of the child or 
pupil? 683. What are the rewards of pupils? 684. How 
would you correct the offense of idleness ? 685. Discuss eack 
of the methods of punishment mentioned. 686. How do you 
detect the use of profane language on the school grounds ?" 
687. What is the difference between approbation and com- 
mendation ? 688. What do you think of the value of prizes as 
incentives? 689. What are the qualities of a good school- 
room? 690. The apparatus? 691. What is said of the bene- 
fits of a library ? 692. Whose work is it to see that the school 
is supplied with a good library? 693. What is said of " an 
educational sentiment"? 

Universal Principles (79). — 694. Repeat Payne's Universal 
Principles of Instruction. 695. Explain the first principle. 
696. How does faculty grow? 697. What does exercise in- 
volve ? 698. How does repetition aid conception ? 699. In 
what does proper exercise of faculty end? 700. What does 
Payne mean by "corresponding action from wnthin " ? 701. 
Name White's seven principles. 702. Which one of Payne's, 
principles agrees with White's fourth ? 703. How must pri- 
mary concepts be taught? 704. Which principle accords with 
Payne's sixth ? 705. What is the function of ideals ? 

Methodology (81). — 706. Define methodology. 707. What of 
its extent? 708. i^ame some of the principles laid down. 
709. What is said of reproduction? 710. What do you under- 



QUESTIONS. 137 

stand by the maxim '' proceed from the known to the un- 
known"? 71T. What is said of sense-perception ? 712. What 
is the true secret of the acquisition of knowledge? 713. What 
is said of thoroughness? 714. Of analysis and synthesis? 
715. To what studies are they specially important ? 716. How 
can a teacher be overzealous? 

Methods in Study (82).— 717. Classify the objects of study .. 
71S. What does"study do for discipline? 719. For the acqui- 
sition of knowledge? 720. For professional advancement?' 
721. Classify the incentive to study. 722. What is said of ther 
benevolent desire? 723. The selfish desire? 724. Is there 
any good in the selfish desires ? 725. Explain the use of the 
involuntary incentives. 726. Under what circumstances are 
these incentives of the most value ? 727. What is said of the 
manner of study? 728. What is meant by "noting facts"? 
729. Enumerate the objects of a recitation. 730. Which of 
these do you consiider the most important? 731. Name an 
object not here named. 732. How should questions be asked 
a class ? 733. Upon what conditions does the method of ques- 
tioning depend ? 734. What do you understand by the " So- 
cratic Method"? 735. What are "leading" questions? 736.. 
What can you say of the use of topical outlines? 737. What 
is the value of blackboard drills ? 738. Why should answers 
to questions be given in complete sentences ? 739. Will the 
ninth requirement lead to a loss of time ? 

History of Education (85).— 740. Define pedagogy. 741. 
Give a full definition of didactics. 742. Discuss this defini- 
tion. 743. Is teaching a profession ? 744. What is said or 
the failures of teachers ? 745. What of professional igno- 
rance ? 746. What is education ? 747. What is teaching ? 
Afis. Teaching is causing another to do something or become 
something thon would not have done or become, apart from 
the teacher. 748. What is the difference between teaching 
and learning? Ans. Teaching is the work of the teacher, and 
learning is the work of the learner — one can not "learn"' 
another anything. 749. Can a teacher teach unless the pupil 
learns? Ans. No; teaching and learning are interdependent.. 
750. What is said of unconscious tuition ? 751. What is said. 



138 QUKSTIONS. 

of the extent of the history of education ? 752. What is civili- 
zation? 753. What is the true basis of all history? 754. What 
is said of the importance of educational history ? 755. To 
what race and to what period is the history of education chiefly 
limited ? 756. What is said of China and Japan ? 757. What 
did Confucius teach ? 758. Why is the civilization of Japan in 
advance of that of China? 

Persia, Egypt, and Greece (87). — 759. What can you say of 
Zoroaster? 760. Who were the Magi? 761. What is said of 
the civilization of Egypt? 762. What does Homer tell us? 
763. What of" Dorian civilization ? 764. What of the laws of 
Ivycurgus ? 765. What difference was shown boys and girls ? 
766. Upon what was Ionian culture based? 767. In what 
respect did it differ from Spartan culture ? 768. What impor- 
tant restrictions were placed upon parents ? 769. Who was 
Pythagoras? 770. What did he teach? 771. How? 772. 
What is the Pythagorean theorem? 

Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle (88). — 773. Who was Soc: 
rates? 774. How did he teach? 775. Explain his Socratic 
method. 776. What can you say of his death ? 777. What is 
" Memorabilia " ? 778. Name two of his most celebrated pupils. 
779. What is the philosophy of Plato called? 780. What did he 
teach in regard to the soul ? 781. What did he write ? 782. 
Who was his most noted pupil ? 783. What philosophy did 
he found ? 784. What was his idea of education ? 

Rome (89) . — 785. Who was Numa Pompilius ? 786. Name 
some writers on education. 787. Recite the teachings of 
Cicero. 788. What of his views concerning punishment? 
789. Who was Seneca? 790. Quintilian? 791. What is said 
of the system of the Romans ? 792. How did the birth of 
Christ affect educational progress ? 

Middle Ages (90). — 793. What is said of education during 
the Middle Ages ? 794. Over what period of time did the 
Middle Ages extend ? 795. What was the tendency of educa- 
tion during this period? 796. What did Ivuther do? 797. 
W/'ho was Melanchthon? 798. What did he do for theology? 
799, What for education? 800. What kind of school did 
Sturm organize? 801. What was his main object? 802. Con- 



_CJESTlONS. 139 

iiect the names of lyuther, Melanchthon, and Sturm. 803. Con- 
nect those of Bacon, Comenius, and Locke. 804. Of what 
does symmetrical development consist? 805. Who was Lord 
^acon ? 806. What did he do for mankind ? 

Seventeenth Century (91).— 807. Who was Comenius? 
80S. Describe his influence on education. 809. What is said 
of the teachings of Ratich? 8ro. What was his theory of 
teaching reading? 811. Was he a successful teacher? 812. 
What did Locke say education consists of? 813. Who was 
Rousseau? 814. What was his chief maxim? 815. His great- 
est production ? 

Eighteenth Century (93).— 816. What can you say of Her- 
man Francke's life and work? S17. Of what was he the 
founder ? 818. Who was Basedow ? 819. What was his motto ? 
820. Quote from his teachings. 821. Who was the founder of 
object teaching? 822. Describe Pestalozzi's life and work. 

The Nineteenth Century (94).— 823. Who was Herbart? 
824. What is Herbartianism ? 825. What of Herbart's influ- 
ence on educational theory? 826. Who was Froebel? 827. 
Compare his work with that of Pestalozzi. 828. What is the 
k:indergarten idea? 829. What can you say of the educational 
outlook to-day ? 830. To what is lack of interest on the part 
of pupils largely due ? 831. On what is the true aim of edu- 
cation based ? 

The New Pedagogics (96).— 832. What can you say of the 
philosophy of teaching ? 833. What is said of cram ? 834. 
What is said of the nature of the child ? 835. What is said of 
the recognition of law in the growth of mind ? 836, What 
•characterizes the new pedagogics? 837, What is science? 
;838. What is said of the activities of the mind? 839. Distin- 
guish between soul and mind. 840. Why is the mind limited 
in its improvements ? 841. What is the supreme purpose of 
teaching ? 842. Why can the mind not be trained without 
adherence to law ? 843. To what is successful teaching due? 
844. State and explain the proposition given on page 99. 845. 
Quote Parker, Draper, and Payne. 846. Why must we first 
learn the nature and activities of the soul before attempting 
±0 ti ain the soul ? 



I40 QUEvSTlONS. 

The Expressional Activities (loi).— 847. What is said of the 
value and sequence of studies ? 848. A.re the natural tenden- 
cies of the child wrong ? 849. What is the greatest question^ 
with teachers? 850. What are the three processes in the 
growth of the mind? 851. What are the acquisitional activi- 
ties? 852. The reflectional ? 853. The relational ? 85^;. Upon 
what basis must the studies of the child be selected ? 855. 
What has been one of our greatest pedagogical blunders ? 856. 
What is said of the importance of psychology? 857. What is 
said of the demand for professionally trained teachers ? 

How to Observe Children (104).— 858. What is said of the 
psychology of childhood? 859. Quote Dr. Hall on child- 
study. 860. What is said of the laboratory method in study- 
ing children ? 861. What is paidology? 862. What is said of 
sympathy with the child ? 863. Give the illustration of life's 
being made up of a series of related selfs. 864. What are the 
several topics to be considered b}^ the teacher in the study of 
the child ? 865. Take each of these topics, and discuss the 
questions asked under them. 

General Questions. 

866. While looking at an object, do you have an image of it ^ 
867. Can feelings be reproduced? 668. Can we represent in 
the mind objects we have never seen? 869. What are some of 
the causes of what we call " a bad memory " ? 870. What is 
meant by the analogy of feeling? 871. What sort of differ- 
ences does the law of contrast point out ? 872. Show how the 
contiguity of place is important in the study of history ; of 
geography. 873. What is meant by creating an interest? 874^ 
What is the effect of bad mental habits ? 875. What is the 
true nature of a definition? 876. What is belief? 877. What 
is a necessary belief? 878. When is the ripe development of 
the thinking powers attained? 879. Resolve this into a syllo- 
gism: "The price of wheat will be higher, because the crop 
promises to be below the average." 880. What is a trite syllo- 
gism? 88r. What is testimony? Evidence? 882. What is cir- 
cumstantial evidence? 883. Are manifestations of ill-temper, 



QUESTIONS. 141 

fretfulness, etc., indications of character ? 884. Is sympath}^ a 
pleasurable or a painful feeling ? 885. "Why is poetry more 
"beautiful than prose ? 886. How do we learn what is beautiful 
and what is not ? 887. What is the earliest affection of which 
a child is conscious? 888. Can one pity thonself? 889. Can 
one sympathize with thonself? 890. Should the confidence of 
a child in the wisdom of thons parents ever be weakened ? 
891. Can you be indignant over a wrong done you? S92. 
Does prejudice seek to do an injury ? 893. Can one hide feel- 
ings of envy? 894. What is the difference between self-love 
and selfishness? 895. How is man's highest happiness ob- 
tained ? 896. How may the desire for approbation destroy 
integrity? 897. Should one be ambitious? 898. Was it 
ambition that spurred Alexander to make conquests ? 899. 
Is judging an act of the. will ? 900. What two conditions are 
necessary to an exercise of conscience? 901. Have all men 
these conditions ? 902. What is conscience ? 903. Is con- 
science always a safe guide? 904. One born without sight 
and hearing would lack what knowledge of the world ? 905. Do 
w^e. know matter, or do we know only its qualities? 906. How 
-would you teach a child to read? 907. Why this way? 908. 
Is great activity in children a fault ? 909. For the purpose of 
committing to memory, is it desirable to read or study aloud ? 
^10. Is a slow memory necessarily a poor one? 911. Show 
that memory is not free from imagination. 912. Relate some 
instances of great power of memory. 913. Do we produce in 
imagination anything that has never been experienced? 914. 
lEnumerate the advantages of class questioning. 915. Does 
change of mental work rest the mind ? 916. Reason for your 
•answer ? 917. Is the moving of the lips in study an advantage ? 
-918. How can children be corrected of the habit of audibly 
whispering their lessons? 919. Is character due more to 
training than to nature? 920. Should pupils ever be told 
what they can discover for themselves? 921. Can the pursuit 
of knowledge be made always agreeable ? 922. Would it be a 
«afe practice never to inflict physical pain as a means of disci- 
pline ? 923. What is the value of maxims in moral training ? 
924. What is the crowning notion of science ? 925. What per- 



142 QUESTIONS. 

cent of the teachers of the United States are ladies? 926- 
What is the average period of time teachers remain in the 
profession ? 927. What is the chief cause of the transitory 
life of the teacher? 928. What is the chief cause of the 
insecure tenure of teachers ? 929. Should teachers be required 
to be re-examined annually ? 930. Why has the profession of 
teaching not been placed on the same basis as law, theology, 
and medicine? 931. Which states of the Union pay relatively 
the highest salaries ? ' . 



INDEX. 



Abstraction defined, 36. 

Abnormal consciousness, 29. 

ABC method, 92. 

Activity, mental, 32 ; brain, 32; 
laws of, 99. 

Activities of the imagination, 
51 ; of the child, suppressed, 
96; observed, loo-ioi ; the 
expressional, loi ; acquisi- 
tional, IG2. 

Acquisitional powers, 41, 102. 

Acquired perceptions def., 43; 
examples, 44; classes, 44. 

Academic philosophy, 88. 

Acts of mind, in conscious- 
ness, 27. 

Adaptation of teaching to the 
taught, 80. 

Affections def., 69 ; classified, 
69 ; beneficent, 69 ; defen- 
sive, 69 ; maleficent, 69 ; do- 
mestic, 69 ; social, 69 ; im- 
portance of, 70. 

Afferent nerves, function of, 
21. 

Agnosticism def., 16. 

Ahriman, 87. 

"Air-castles," 50. 

American education, works 
on, 115. 

Amnesia def., 57; causes of, 

57. 

Anger, 70. 

Analysis of complex things, 
82. 

Anthropology def. 13. 

Answers of pupils scruti- 
nized, 8a. 



Apperception def, 61 ; 102 ; 
III. 

Apparatus, 78. 

Approbation of teacher, 77. 

Apprehension, 39. 

Aristotle, sketch of, 89. 

Asceticism, 90. 

Association, laws of, 58 ; clas- 
sified, 58. 

Associative imagination, 51. 

Attention, defined and dis- 
cussed, 30; etymology, 31; 
classes of, 31 ; when first 
exercised b}'- child, 31 ; func- 
tions of, 31 ; knowledge 
depending upon,, 32; rela- 
tional to mental activity, 
32 ; to consciousness, 29 ; 
to retention, 56 ; laws of, 
33; conditions unfavorable 
to, 33 ; motives to employ to 
secure, 34 ; motives of pupil 
in, 34; motives of teacher, 
34 ; growth of, 35 ; how to 
cultivate, 35 ; when spon- 
taneous, 29. 

Auditory nerves, function of, 
24. 

Authority of teacher, 76. 

Axioms, 49. 

Bacon, Lord, 91 ; bis influence 
on education, 91. 

Basedow, Johann Bernard, 93 ; 
his views, 93. 

Bain, Alexander, a material- 
ist, 15. 



144 



INDEX. 



:Eerkeley, George, an idealist, 
i6. 

Eiology defined, 13. 

Eiography def., 13 ; use of, 72, 

Biography of child, 107. 

^Biographies of educators, 119. 

Boards of Kducation, intelli- 
gence of, 79 ; may establish 
libraries, 79. 

Body a burden to the soul, 15, 

:Book, use of in recitation, 35. 

"Books in the study of psy- 
chology, 13 ;select list of, on 
psychology and related sub- 
jects, 114. 

Brain described, 19; func- 
tions, 20 ; activity of, related 
to cerebration, 30. 

Cause and effect, 59. 

Cerebration, unconscious, 30. 

Cerebellum described, 20. 

Cerebrum, its functions, 20. 

Cerebro-spinal system, 19. 

Centrifugal nerves, 21 ; cen- 
tripetal, 21. 

Child from the standpoint of 
nature, loi ; its knowledge 
on entering school, 46. 

■Child, the normal, 106. 

Childhood, psychology of, 
104. 

Child-study, methods of, 104- 
106. 

•Children, begin to reason, 64 ; 
periods of reasoning in, 64 ; 
weak-minded, as viewed by 
Quintilian, 89 ; reading 
minds of, 105 ; observing 
powers of, 110. 

China, education in, 86. 

Christ, birth of, influence of 
on education, 89. 

Choice, a step in willing, 72. 

■Civilization, and education, 
86; Dorian, 88. 

Cicero and his principles, 89. 

Classification important, 5. 



Cognition def, 11 ; stages of, 

30- 
Comenius, John Amos, sketch 

of, 91. 
Comparison, 36. 
Confucius and his teachings, 

86. 
Consciousness def, 11, 27; 

views on, 27 ; uses of term, 

27 ; objects of, 27 ; time of, 

28 ; relation to intellect, 28 ; 
kinds of, 29 ; degrees of, 29 ; 
conditions of, 29; relation 
to attention, 29 ; to cerebra- 
tion, 29; "voluntary," 29; 
states of, 67. 

Concepts defined and discuss- 
ed, 36-38 ; classified, 38 ; pri- 
mary, taught objectively, 
80. 

Conception def., 36; processes 
of, 36 ; what it embraces, 37 ; 
relation to education, 38 ; in . 
scientific knowledge, 38; 
aided by judgment, 81 ; con- 
ception of the child, 112. 

Constitutive knowledge, 41. 

Conditions of school manage- 
ment, 74; subjective, 74, and 
objective, 78. 

Conclusions of syllogisms, 66. 

Contrast, laws of, 58. 

Contiguity, law of, 58. 

Contemplative imagination, 

51- 

Conductors of sensation, 21, 22. 

Corporal punishment, 77. 

Course of instruction, em- 
braces what, 80. 

Color, how known, 25. 

Cramming condemned, 96. 

Cultivation of the attention, 
35 ; of conception, 38. 

Degrees of consciousness, 29. 
Deity, agnostic view of, 16. 
Denomination, in conception, 
37. 



INDEX. 



145 



Deduction def., 65; authors 
quoted, 66 ; forms of, 66. 

Desire for property, 70; for 
knowledge, 70; for power, 
71 ; for liberty, 71. 

Desires defined and classi- 
fied, 70 ; benevolent, as an 
incentive, 83 ; selfish, 83. 

Desks of schoolroom, 78. 

Didactics def., 85. 

Dignity of the teacher, 75. 

Disposition, study of, 108. 

Discipline, thoroughness of, 
75 ; mental, how obtained, 
82. 

Distance, how known, 25. 

Dorians, 87. 

Draper, Andrew S., quoted, 
98. 

Duties of pupils, 76; of teach- 
ers to their profession, 85, 
103. 

Dualism def., 17; forms of, 17, 

Dualistic realism discussed, 
17- 

^Economy in school adminis- 
tration, 79. 

Education, science of, 73, 85 ; 
moral, intellectual, physical, 
73 ; defined, 85 ; history of, 
85-86; art of, 85; "expen- 
sive," 85. 

*' Education of Man," by Froe- 
bel, 94; Education Abroad, 
works on, 116. 

Educational capital, 82. 

Educational sentiment, 79. 

Efferent nerves, function of, 
21. 

Ego defined, 9. 

Egypt, education in, 87, 

Elaborative knowledge, 41, 

" Emile," by Rousseau, 93. 

Empirical psychology, 11, 

Emotions def,, 68; classified, 
68; egoistic, def., 68; altru- 
istic, def., 68; rational, 68; 



instinctive, 68; aesthetic, 69; 

ethical, 69. 
Enthymeme, 66. 
Encephalon, 19. 
End-plates, sensorial, 23, 24. 
Ether, function of, 25. 
Ethical consciousness, 29. 
Experience, in acquired per- 
ceptions, 24, 25 ; the ground, 

of knowledge, 16. 
Examination and analysis, a 

step in willing, 71. 
Example of teacher, in moral 

training, 72. 
Executive volition, 72. 
Exercise, what it involves, 79 ; 

ends in acquisition of 

knowledge, 80. 
Expulsion of pupils, 78. 
External excitant, 18, 23, 24, 

25, 43- 
Excitement, psychical, 19, 23, 

24. 
Expressional powers, 48, loi ; 

cultivation of, 102. 
Exercise of the mind, 57. 

Faculty defined, 26; how it 
grows, 79. 

Fairy tales, use of, 72. 

Facts, mental, a study of, 12. 

Features, physical, of the 
child, T08. 

Feelings classified, 7, 67 ; def., 
67 ; corporeal, and psychical, 
67 ; instinctive, how occa- 
sioned, 68; how ennobled, 
72; the excitation of a, 71; 
awaken right, 72. 

Form, how known, 25. 

Forgetfulness, 57; causes of, 
58. 

Francke, Augustus Herman, 
sketch of, 93. 

Froebel, Frederick, sketch of, 
94 ; founded the kindergar- 
ten, 94. 



146 



:ndex. 



Ganglia, 22. 

Gems, literary, use of. 72. 

Generalization, 37 ; concep- 

tive, 61. 
Growth of mind, 13. 

Hall, G. Stanle3% quoted, 104. 
Harris, Dr. William T., 114. 
Hamilton, Sir William, 10. 
Habits of action, 79. 
Heart power, 75. 
Health of the child, 107. 
Hearing, sensation of, 24. 
Heroic Age, 87. 
Herbart, quoted, 15, 105 ; his 

psychology, 94. 
History of education, 86. 
Hume, David, an idealist, 16. 

Ideas, consonant, 62 ; primarj^, 
47; intuitive, 47; abstract, 
how developed, 39. 

Idealism def., 16. 

Ideals to guide practice, 80. 

Idiots and intuition, 48, 

Images, modes of reproduc- 
ing, 50. 

Imagination discussed, 51 ; 
activities of, 51 ; limits of, 
51 ; kinds of, 51 ; relation to 
education, 52 ; use in various 
sciences, 52 ; in ethical cul- 
ture, 53; training of, 54; 
phases of, 54; imagination 
of the child, iii. 

Improvement of the soul, in- 
definite, 97. 

Individual powers of soul, 40. 

Induction discussed, 65. 

Inference, 65. 

Inferential method, 6, 12. 

Instinctive emotions, 68. 

Incentives to study, 34, 83 ; to 
attention, 34. 

Instruction, Universal Prin- 
ciples of, 81. 

Int&llect def and discussed, 
6, 10, 40; functions and 



powers, 21, 41 ; m conscious- 
ness, 28. 
Introspection discussed, 6, 11, 

13, 14- 

Intuition def, 47; ideas, 47; 
truths, 48; relation to mem- 
ory, etc., 48. 

Investigation on part of pupil, 
79, S3. 

Involuntary attehtion, 31, 32. 

Japan, education in, 86, 

Judgment def., 61 ; a judg- 
ment, 61 ; parts of, 61 ; clas- 
sified, 62 ; what it implies, 
62 ; when first developed, 62 ; 
relation to education, 63 ; 
cultivation of, 63 ; of pupils, 
63- 

Knowledge def, 40; objects 
of, 40; classified, 40-41 ; sci- 
entific and unscientific, 41 ; 
primitive and developed, 
41 ; presentative, represent- 
ative, elaborative, and con- 
stitutive, 41 ; original, re- 
corded, and tuitionary, 74; 
presentative, representative, 
and thought, 80; in judg- 
ment, 62 ; an acquisition of, 
by study, 82 ; ability to ex- 
press, 102. 

Kong, or Confucius, 86. 

Kindergartenism, 46. 

Laboratories, experiments in, 
63, 78 ; psychological, 105. 

Laconism, 88. 

Language, importance of, 102 ; 
in conception, 38; profane, 

77- 

Laws of mind, known to teach- 
er, 8, 98. 

Laws of association, 58-59. 

Leading questions, 84. 

Literature, imaginative, 54 ; 
related to psychology, 13; 
of psychology, 114. 



INDKX. 



147 



Libraries in school, 78. 
Leibnitz's theory, 17. 
Light in schoolroom, 78. 
Limits of imagination, 48. 
Linguistic study, 38. 
Locke, John, 16, 92. 
Love, paternal, filial, etc., 69. 
Luther, Martin, 90. 
Lycurgus and his theories, 87. 
" Leonard and Gertrude," 94. 

Major term of syllogism, 67. 

Manner of study, 83. 

Materialism def., 15. 

Mathematics raised to a 
science by Pythagoras, 88. 

Medulla oblongata, and its 
functions, 20. 

Mechanical conscience, 44. 

Melancthon, Philip, 90; views 
of, on language, 90. 

Memory defined and dis- 
cussed, 55-60 ; acts of, 55 ; 
varieties of, 56; conditions 
on which to improve, 57 ; 
cultivation of, 59; of the 
child, observed, 112. 

Mental acts, study of, 12. 

Mental activity, laws of, how 
formed, 12. 

Mental excitement, 19. 

Method, introspective, def, 6, 
II ; difficulties of, 11 ; infer- 
ential, 6, 12; physiological, 
6 ; textbook, 6. 

Methods, a knowledge of, nec- 
cessary, 75 ; in study, 82 ; il- 
logical, 98 ; of reasoning, 65 ; 
normal, in teaching, 95. 

McCosh, James, 18. 

Middle Ages, 90. 

Middle term of syllogism, 67.] 

Mill, John Stuart, 16. 

Mind defined, 10; distin- 
guished from soul, 10; 
teacher deals with, 9 ; is 
finite, 10, 97; Mill's defini- 
tion of, 16. 



Minor term of syllogism, 67, 
Mnemonics, the use of, 60. 
Monism discussed, 15. 
Moral training, 72 ; methods 

of, 72. 
Morality of the teacher, 75. 
Mysticism discussed, 17. 

National Educational Asso- 
ciation, proceedings of, 121. 

Nature of the child recog- 
nized, 96. 

Necessary truths, 48. 

Necessity of intuitive truths, 
48. 

Nerves, analysis of, 21 ; uses 
of, 21 ; sensory, afferent, or 
centripetal, 21 ; motor, effer- 
ent, or centrifugal, 21 ; 
mixed, 21, 

Nervous system in relation to 
sensation, 19, 

Nomenclature, 37. 

Non-ego, 28. 

Object teaching, by Pestalozzi, 

93. 
Objects of study, 82. 
Objective teaching, 80. 
Objective conditions of school 

government, 78. 
Objective method of study, 12. 
Objective laws of association, 

58. 
Oblongata described, 20. 
Observation, 31, 36; by the 

pupil, 54 ; in induction, 65 ; 

of children, 12, 104; by 

children, no. 
Offenses by pupils, 65. 
Olfactory nerve, 23. 
Optic nerve, 24. 
" Orbis Pictus," by Comenius. 

91. 
Order of intellectual growth, 

80. 
Ormuzd, 87. 
Outlook for the profession, 94. 



148 



INDEX. 



Outlines, topical, importance 

of, 5 ; use of, 84. 
"Outlines of Pedagogics," 

Rein's, referred to, 114. 

Paideutics, 73. 

Paidology, 106. 

Parker, Francis W., quoted, 98. 

"Parrot" recitations con- 
demned, 38. 

Patriotism defined, 69. 

Passive reproduction, 50. 

Payne, W. H., quoted, 98; 
Joseph, quoted, 79. 

Pedagogics defined, 73, 85 ; 
tlie science of pedagogy, 99 ; 
the New, 96 ; Outlines of, 85 ; 
basis of, 73 ; means of, 73 ; 
literature of, 116. 

Pedagogical propositions, 97. 

Percept defined, 45 ; distin- 
guished from concept, 45 ; 
from percept and image, 45. 

Penetrative imagination, 51. 

Perception defined, 45 ; rela- 
tion of, to education, 45 ; 
growth of, 46 ; clearness of, 
how attained, 79. 

Perceptions, acquired, 24, 25, 
44 ; original, 43. 

Periods in child's reason. 64. 

Periodicals, 122. 

Peripatetic philosophy, 89. 

Persia, 87. 

Personal identity, ideas of, 48. 

Pestalozzi, sketch of, 93. 

Phantasy defined and dis- 
cussed, 49-50. 

Phenomena, importance of a 
study of, II, 97 ; of the soul, 
8 ; psychological, 28, 29. 

Philanthropy defined, 69. 

Physiology related to psychol- 

ogy, 13-15. 

Physiological method of study, 

6. 
Pictures in the schoolroom, 

72, 78. 



Place, contiguity of, 58. 

Power, as an element of ped- 
agogy, 74; acquired and 
inherent, 74. 

Powers of the soul, classified, 
6 ; presentative, 7, 41 ; repre- 
sentative, 49 ; thought, 60. 

Presentative powers, 7, 41. 

Presentation, of object, in 
willing, 71; in conception, 
36. . 

Premises of syllogism, 66. 

Preparation, the teacher's, for 
the study of children, 106. 

Principles, Universal, 79, 80; 
in teaching, 98. 

Profession of teaching, 85; re- 
spect for, 75. 

Professional purposes of 
study, 82. 

Professional practice, lack of, 

99- 

Professional training of the 
teacher, 93. 

Proposition omitted in enthy- 
meme, 66. 

Plato, sketch of, 88. 

Pupils, their rights, duties, 
rewards, and punishments, 
76, 77- 

Punishment, 77 ; as viewed by 
Cicero, 89; Idj^ Locke, 92. 

Purpose of life, loi. 

Psammeticus, 87. 

Psychology defined, 8 ; prov- 
ince of, 8 ; classified, 10 ; 
empirical, 10; rational, 10; 
an inductive science, 14; 
importance of, 103 ; liter- 
ature of, 114, 121. 

Psychical theories outlined, 

15-18- 
Pythagoras, sketch of, 87. 

Qualifications of the teacher, 

74, 75- 
Questions, how propounded 
to class, 84; leading, 84; 



INDKX. 



149 



asked skillfully, 112 ;_ in 
child-study, on child's biog- 
raphy, 107 ; on health, 107 ; 
physical features, 108; dis- 
position, 108; exercise of 
the senses, 109; observation, 
no; sense-perception, no; 
apperception, in; imagin- 
ation, in; memory, 112; 
conception, 112; reasoning, 

113- 

Questions, list of one thou- 
sand, on psychology, 123. 

Ouintilian, 89. 

Ratich, Wolfgang, sketch of, 
92. 

Rational en^otions, 68. 

Reading, as taught by Ratich, 
92. 

Reason defined, 63 ; when first 
exercised by children, 64 ; 
periods of, in children, 64 ; 
"natural," 48; relation to 
education, 67. 

Reasoning, forms of, 64 ; meth- 
ods of, 65 ; from particular 
facts to general facts, 65 ; 
inductive and deductive, 
how developed, 67 ; of the 
child, 113. 

Recitation, objects of, 83; 
modes of conducting, 84. 

Recognition discussed, 56. 

Recollection defined, 56. 

Reference, works of, 114, 

Reflection defined, 31. 

Reflective self-consciousness, 

42- . 
Reflectional activities, tot. 
Reflex activity of the will, 71. 
Reformation instituted by 

Luther, 90. 
Relational powers, 6t. 
Repetition, value of, 57, 59, 

79> 84- 
Representative powers, 7, 49. 
Reproduction, value of, 56, 57, 



81 ; passive, 50 ; spontaneous, 
49 : stimulation in, 50. 

" Republic," by Plato, 88. 

Resentment defined, 70. 

Respect for the profession, 75. 

Retention, act of memory, 55. 

Rewards of pupils, 77. 

Ried, Thomas, 18. 

Rights of pupils, 76. 

Right and wrong, emotions 
of, 69; ideas of, intuitive. 

47. 
Romans, educational system 

of, 89. 
Rote-learning, 92. 
Rousseau, sketch of, 92. 
" Royal Seven," 34. 
Ruskin on the imagination, 

51. 

Schoolroom, qualities of, 78; 
view of Comenius on, 91. 

Schneiderian membrane, 23. 

Science defined, 97; the 
crowning notion of, 39 ; of 
pedagogics, 97, 

Self-consciousness, 41, 42; 
abnormal, 42, 108 ; sponta- 
neous, 42 ; reflective, 42. 

Self-activity of pupil, 82. 

Self-control of teacher, 75. 

Self-defense, feelings of, 69. 

Self-confidence of pupil, 63. 

Self-evidence of intuitive 
truth, 48. 

Seneca, a Roman writer, 89. 

Sensation, processes of, t8 ; 
synonyms for, 19, 21. 

Sensations, of smell, 23 ; of 
taste, 23 ; of hearing, 24 ; of 
sight, 25; of touch, 25. 

Senses, exercise of, 109; spe- 
cial, 22 ; classified, 44. 

Sensibilities, the, 7, 10, 67. 

Sense-concept, 45. 

Sens e-perceptions, defined, 
42; uses of term, 43; con- 
ditions of, 43 ; elements of. 



I50 



INDEX. 



43 ; improvement of, 45, 81 ; 
in dualistic realism, 17; 
antecedents of, 26 ; view of 
Rousseau, 83; of Pestalozzi, 
93; of Herbart, 94; knowl- 
edge through, 102; in the 
child, no. 
Sensorium defined, 18; use of, 

43- 
Sensorial excitement, 43. 
Sentiment, educational, 79. 
Similarity, law of, 58. 
Simonides, 60. 
Simple concepts, 38. 
Size of objects, how learned, 

Skill, school phase of, 74; in 
government, 75. 

Sociology defined, 13. 

Socrates, sketch of, 88; his 
method, 84, 88. 

Solon, sketch of, 87. 

Soul defined, 9; distinguished 
from spirit, 9 ; from mind, 
10 ; powers of, 26 ; general 
powers of, 26 ; individual 
powers, 40; infinite and 
immortal, 97. 

Spencer, Herbert, an agnos- 
tic, 16. 

Spinal cord, function of, 22. 

Stimulation in reproduction, 
50. 

Study, methods in, 82 ; objects 
of, 82 ; incentives to, 83 ; of 
children, by teacher, 12, 104. 

Sturm, John, sketch of, 91. 

Subjective conditions of gov- 
ernment, 78. 

Subjective laws, 59. 

Suspension of pupils, 78. 

Syllogism discussed, 66. 

Symmetrical development, 
91, 92. 

Sympathy with the child, 106 ; 
an emotion, 68 ; an affection, 
69. 



Sympathetic system de- 
scribed, 22. 

Synonyms, use of, 14. 

Synthesis of individual 
things, 82. 

System in education insti- 
tuted by Sturm, 91. 

Taste, sense of, discussed, 23. 

Teaching defined, 73 ; philoso- 
phy of, 96 ; a profession, 85 ; 
scientific, 9. 

Teacher, thons qualifications, 
74 ; authority, 76 ; tenure of, 

85. 
Terms of sylloe:ism, 67. 
Thales, 88. 
Theories on education, held 

by Chinese, 86; by Lycur- 

gus, 87 ; Solon, 87 ; Pythag- 

oras, 88; Socrates, 88; 

Plato, 88; Ari stotle, 89; 

Melancthon, 90 ; Sturm, 91 ; 

Bacon, 91 ; Comenius, 91 ; 

Ratich, 92; Locke, 92; 

Rousseau, 93 ; Basedow, 93. 
Thermometer in schoolroom, 

78. 
Thon, the new pronoun, 5; 

use of, 74, 75, 76, 79, 100, 

103, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 

TIG, III, etc. 
Thought powers, 7, 60, 61. 
Touch, sense of, 25. 
Tradition in China, 86. 
Trviths, intuitive, 48 ; self-evi- 
dent, 48 ; particular and 

general, 65, 66. 
Training, professional, 99, 

103 ; of the imagination, 54. 

Unconscious tuition, 86. 
Universal principles, 79-81. 
Universality of intuitive 

truths, 48. 

Validit}^ of dualistic realism, 

17- 



INDEX. 151 

Varro, 89. White, Dr. E. E., quoted, 80. 

Voluntary attention, 31. Wrong, ideas of, 47. 

Weber's Law of Attention, 33. Xenophon's "Memorabilia," 

" What " period in the child's 88. 

reasoning, 64. 

Will defined and discussed, Zoroaster, 87; his influence, 

10, 71, 72. 87. 
Willing, steps in the process 

of, 71. 



TESTIMONIALS. 



OPINIONS OF PRESS AND PUBLIC. 

A FEW EXTRACTS FROM CORRESPONDENCE AND THE EDU- 
CATIONAI, PRESS, SHOWING WHAT EMINENT EDUCA- 
TORS SAY OF "pUTWNES OF PSYCHOI.OGY." 



THIS WORK PI^ACES THE SUBJECT OF PSYCHOI^OGY ON A 
POPUI<AR PI,ANE AND ENI.ISTS THOUSANDS OF TEACH- 
ERS IN THE STUDY OF THEIR PROFESSION. 



Your excellent book, " Outlines of Psychology," gives evi- 
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As an outline I am sure it will be of great assistance to teach- 
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member State Board of School Kxaminers. 

PROF. Wii^i^iAMS : The conspicuous merits of your " Out- 
lines of Psychology "render special commendation superfluous. 
The little book not only clears away a vast amount of pedantic 
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I am very much pleased with the many excellent features of 
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It is the best aid to the study of Psychology it has ever been 
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Your book comes to the point, and is truly an eye-opener. — 
BivMER E. Beams, Prin. Milltown School, Chester, N. J. 



11 TKSTIMONIAI.S. 

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teachers of this county, and without much effort Send me 
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" Outlines of Psychology " is the most practical work on the 
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ine. It tells the teacher just what he wants to know. It is so 
■comprehensive, concise, and convenient that no teacher should 
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our teachers of this city and county. — L. M. IvAYTOn, Principal 
of one of the ward schools, Springfield, O. 

Allow me to express the opinion that the " Outlines " can be 
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Newark, O., member State Board of School Examiners. 

We adopted your " Outlines of Psychology" in our school, 
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" Outlines of Psychology," by Prof. Henry G. Williams, A. 
JM., contains in a condensed form the entire scheme of Psy- 
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•education from the earliest times to the present, sketches of 
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-what value is a knowledge of Psychology to teachers? It is a 
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the land, of whatever grade. — Education, Boston, Mass. 

It is an outline of Psychology as applied to teaching. Def- 
initions and principles are all given and illustrated. The 
-cardinal principles that underlie all empirical j)sychology are 
liere explained. It is one of the most practical books for 
teachers published. Beautifully printed and elegantly and 
•durably bound. — The Teachers Outlook, Lebanon, O. 



TESTIMONIALS. Ill 

The most sensible thing on the subject I ever saw. — W. A. 
Orange, Russell, O. 

Prof. Wii,i,iAMS : Your book gives entire satisfaction in 
-class use. To my mind nothing published assists the teacher 
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€ational News, Philadelphia, Pa. 

" Outlines of Psychology," by Henry G. Williams, A. M., is a 
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boro, O. 

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Prof. Williams, of Lynchburg, O., is one of Ohio's foremost 
educators, who has written a most concise work on Psychol- 
ogy, which is pronounced to be just what is needed by teach- 
ers and students. Its low price makes it within the reach of 
all. — Daily Irontonian, Irouton, O. 



IV TESTIMONIALS. 

The vital questions of professional advancement and of 
school direction have received from Prof. Williams most 
thorough and successful investigation. — W. G. Moi<ER, for- 
merly School Superintendent, now of Springfield, O. 

It is a comprehensive treatment of the subject, and em- 
braces elements of the best thought on the science of mind. — 
School Visitor, Versailes, O. 

I am very much pleased with it. It is a very comprehensive 
outline of the subject, and I am sure it will meet with general 
approval, I shall be glad to recommend it to our students,, 
believing it will serve them a most excellent purpose. You 
have, in my judgment, made many very strong points in the 
work, — H. B. Brown, A, M., President Northern Indiana Nor- 
mal School, Valparaiso, Ind. 

There are thousands of teachers who ought to possess such, 
a book, and who would be glad to buy it at so low a price were 
it brought to their attention. — Chari,KS A. Genung, ex-Super- 
intendent, White Plains, N. Y, 

It is just what I needed. I have found it difficult to get clear 
ideas from so many pS3'chologies published. It is very dif- 
ficult to frame concise answers from 's book. You must 

read so much to get a little, and then you hardly know what 
you have. I am glad to possess such a book, and recommend 
it to my fellow teachers. — Supt. W. A. Cai.dwei.i<, South Sa- 
lem, Ohio. 

I am highly pleased with your " Outlines of Psychology."^ 
— P, C. Pai^mKR, Principal Fenton Normal School, Fenton^ 
Mich. 

A guide-book to the student of Psychology and of the the- 
ory of teaching is the valuable and original work of Prof 
Henry G. Williams, of Lynchburg, O. It is not the bulky, 
treatise that so commonly clouds this important subject, but a 
boiled-down classification of the " facts of the science in their 
relation to each other," as Prof Williams says in his introduc- 
tion. He is also especially right in giving outlines and sug- 
gestive articles showing that " Psychology is not an isolated 
science." It is a practical book, and cheap enough for every 
teacher to have. — The Pathfinder, Washington, D, C. 

" Outlines of Psychology " carefully perused. It is an excel- 
lent book on the subject, and should be generally adopted by 
the teachers. I shall do all in my power to have the teachers 
take up the work at the coming County Institute this sum- 
mer.— Jones M, CI.APP, County Superintendent, Harrisburg^ 
Banner Co,, Neb, 



TESTIMONIALS. V 

Your excellent book at hand. It is just the thing for use in 
3iornial school work. — H. E. Axi^ine, Stockport, O. 

Your work on Psychology is just what I have been looking 
for. It is concise and complete. It is strange to me that such 
a work was never before published. — B. P. TiCE, Gath, O. 

Your " Outlines of Psychology " shows much careful re- 
search, and is a convenient compendium of the subject. — War- 
ren Darst, Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy, Ohio 
Normal University, Ada, O. 

It is an outline of principles logically arranged so that the 
student of Psychology and of the theory of teaching may use 
it as a guide book in directing his investigations on this sub- 
ject. — The School Journal, New York. 

I am much pleased with your "Outlines of Psychology." It 
is a multum in parvo. It shows extensive research and care- 
ful preparation.— Theodore B. Noss, Ph. D., Principal State 
Normal School, California, Pa., and for some time a special 
student of Psychology in German universities. 

Your plan is admirable, your statements are terse, clear, and 
•sound. I recommend it as an excellent book on this subject, 
and one that will serve most excellently the purpose for 
which it was intended. — C. P. Carey, A. M., Professor of Ped- 
agogy ill the State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. 

Henry G. Williams, A. M., has prepared an elaborate " Out- 
lines of Psychology," a practical book for teachers and stu- 
dents. It has departments devoted to " Outlines of Psychol- 
ogy," " Outlines of Pedagogy," " Outlines of Methodology," 
*" History of Education," and 787 carefully prepared questions 
•on these four departments.-V<^^^^^^^^ of Education, Boston, 
Mass. (Several new chapters added in this edition.) 

Supt H. G. Williams, A. M., of Lynchburg, O., has issued 
""Outlines of Psychology." The work has been out only a 
«hort time and has already had a remarkable sale. We do not 
wonder at this, as the work is one of rare merit, and is cer- 
tainly a great help to anyone in systematizing the principles 
of the difficult subject of Psychology. It contains first a brief 
synopsis of Psychology. Next are complete outlines, with 
concise and correct definitions of the terms used, and the re- 
lation they all bear to education. Then follows an outline of 
Pedagogy, then one of Methodology, and after this a brief but 
admirable History of Education. There is also a series of 800 
questions covering the entire book. We heartily indorse the 
w?ork, and commend it to teachers and students of Psychology. 
— The School Record, Wooster, O. 



VI TESTIMONIALS. 

Your " Outlines of Psychology" is a most excellent little 
work. I have examined it carefully and with a great deal of 
pleasure and profit. I bespeak for it a complete success. — I. M. 
JORDON, Principal Eastern District, Chillicothe (O.) Schools. 

It is unlike any work before published, and will prove a 
most valuable auxiliary to the progressive teacher. — L. O. 
Thoroman, President Salina Normal Universit}-, Salina, Kas> 

The coming teacher must be thoroughly conversant witli 
this subject, and this book will help him as no other book 
will. I consider it a most valuable pedagogical work. — B. B. 
Hari^an, ex-Superintendent Middlelowu, O., now Teacher of 
Mathematics, Dayton (O.) High School. 

It is one of the most complete works on the subject I ever 
saw. It should be owned by every teacher. I shall endeavor 
to introduce it into this county and throughout this state.-— 
W. M. Hays, Waldo, Miss., editor Dixie School Journal. 

It is a grand book — nothing equals it for the teacher who is 
anxious to stud}' Psychology in its relation to teaching. — C. 
M. Line, Pasco, O. 

I have found it an interesting review of the subject of which 
it treats. It is suggestive, and can be made most helpful and 
useful. — B. F. Prince, Ph. D., Professor of Greek and Histor\% 
Wittenberg College, Springfield, O. 

The subject is treated in a thorough, exhaustive, and com- 
prehensive manner. It is tersely written, yet plain and full — 
in fact, i± is the whole thing in a nutshell. — Hillsboro [O.) Ga- 
zelle. 

Dear Prof. Williams : In " Outlines of Psychology " you 
conceived an admirable idea and worked it out with much 
skill. There is a place for such a work, and I am glad there 
is such a demand for it. — W. H. VenablE, Ph. D., LL. D., the 
" Teacher-Poet " and Author, Cincinnati, O. 

I have used " Outlines of Psychology " in my Normal Classes 
and have found it a great aid in giving the student a clear 
knowledge of this difficult subject. It is alike beneficial to 
the beginner and the advanced student, through its logical 
classification. — Fenton Gall, Pres. Hillsboro (O.) College. 

Professor H. G. Williams : I examined your " Outlines 
of Psychology " with a good deal of care, and can say *' with- 
out mental reservation," that I am pleased with the work. As 
a whole, the outline is very excellent, and can be used with 
great profit by any student or reader of Psychology or Ped- 
agogy- — Daniel Putnam, M. A., author of " Putnam's Psy- 
chology," and Professor of Pedagogy in the State Normal 
School, Ypsilanti, Mich. 



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